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<h1>The Great Apostasy</h1>
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Last updated September 6, 2026

{{Summary1}} The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claims to be the restored Church of Jesus Christ. Fundamental to that belief is that the Church was lost for a time. The period in which the Church was lost is known to Latter-day Saints as either the "Great Apostasy" or the "Falling Away."<ref>For a reference to the "Great Apostasy," see ''Preach My Gospel: A Guide to Missionary Service'' (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2004), 35–36. For "Falling Away," see ''Preach My Gospel: A Guide to Sharing the Gospel of Jesus Christ'' (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2023), 37–38.</ref> Without such a loss, there could have been no "restitution of all things" (Acts 3:21). Critics, and especially those who are of Protestant, Orthodox, or Catholic Christian background, have argued that the Latter-day Saint belief in the Great Apostasy is erroneous on many grounds.

In recent years, there has been a new kind of critic of Latter-day Saint Apostasy narratives. A strain of Latter-day Saint scholars has argued that Latter-day Saint Apostasy narratives suffer from intellectual deficiencies and pastoral sensitivity. They have been sensitive to notions, promoted by the likes of B.H. Roberts, Joseph Fielding Smith, and James E. Talmage, that the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages Middle Ages] represented an age of spiritual rot and intellectual imbecility. They have also argued that the Lord may not have intended to restore the Church of Jesus Christ, but rather to restore a ''people'', and established a Church to that end in the last days.

It is a valuable exercise for Latter-day Saints to consider the historical, scriptural, and theological grounding for their belief in the Great Apostasy. While some aspects of this belief lie beyond what can be known from the existing documents (and thus beyond the ken of academics), Latter-day Saint belief is not contradicted by existing historical or scriptural evidence. Both the New Testament and other documents establish that an internal rebellion began in the Church in its first century. Those who rebelled did so to gain dominion over others and have the praise of the world. They changed scripture to support movements away from the Church. Because of these new movements, many of our Christian forefathers and foremothers innocently languished for centuries, devoting their intellectual and devotional energy to systems that did not have the power to save and exalt them. They "[were] blinded by the subtle craftiness of men, whereby they lie in wait to deceive, and [were] kept from the truth because they [knew] not where to find it" (Doctrine and Covenants 123:12).

However, showing that a mass internal rebellion occurred only gives us half of the puzzle. Why did God wait so long to inaugurate the Restoration after the Apostasy? Did He abandon humanity during that time? What happens to all those who did not have the Gospel during the time of the Apostasy? These are also questions we take up in this article.

Lastly, some might note that The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not follow practices taught in its scriptures. While some might believe this is evidence that the Church has apostasized, it is not. The early Church apostasized from key, essential doctrines. The restored Church has not.
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| title = ===Question: How do old approaches to defending the Great Apostasy compare with approaches Latter-day Saints should take today?===
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In recent years, there has been a growing strain of Latter-day Saint scholars who have called for new approaches to the Apostasy. Some are concerned that traditional approaches—which have emphasized a dark pall of intellectual and spiritual rot that essentially covered all people from the death of the last Apostles to Joseph Smith's First Vision—are neither "pastorally productive," nor "intellectually defensible."<ref>Nicholas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer, “[https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/remnant-or-replacement-outlining-a-possible-apostasy-narrative Remnant or Replacement? Outlining a Possible Apostasy Narrative],” ''BYU Studies Quarterly'' 60, no. 1 (2021): 106. For more on these scholars' views, see the summary in John Gee, "[https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/ten-views-on-the-falling-away Ten Views on the Falling Away]," ''BYU Studies Quarterly'' 63, no. 2 (2024): 157–60.</ref> This Apostasy narrative has been productively deconstructed.<ref>See generally Miranda Wilcox and John D. Young, eds., ''Standing Apart: Mormon Historical Consciousness and the Concept of Apostasy'' (Oxford University Press, 2014).</ref> Another concern is the portrayal of the Middle Ages as a time of spiritual darkness and imbecility.<ref>Eric R. Dursteler, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/inheriting-great-apostasy-evolution-latter-day-saint-views-middle-ages-and-renaissance Inheriting the 'Great Apostasy': The Evolution of Latter-day Saint Views on the Middle Ages and Renaissance]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 29–65; Miranda Wilcox, “[https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/narrating-religious-heritage Narrating Religious Heritage: Apostasy and Restoration],” ''BYU Studies Quarterly'' 60, no. 3 (2021): 213–28.</ref>

The article will aim to provide a narrative that is both intellectually defensible and pastorally productive. Without diminishing the seriousness of the loss of authority and precious truths that came with the Falling Away, this article will also show that there is much room for a full and loving embrace of "our kindred Christian saints;" "our believing mothers and fathers;" "our ancient Christian sisters and brothers."<ref>Jason R. Combs, Mark D. Ellison, Catherine Gines Taylor, and Kristian S. Heal, ''Ancient Christians: An Introduction for Latter-day Saints'' (BYU Maxwell Institute, 2022), viii.</ref>
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| title = ===Question: What is the "Great Apostasy" or "Falling Away"?===
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Defining ''what'' the Apostasy actually was is a matter of great importance. Without this definition, we cannot help answer concerns regarding this topic. It is important to define the Apostasy using scripture.

The word ''apostasy'' comes from the Greek word ''ἀποστασία'' (ah-poh-stah-SEE-ah). The prefix ''ἀπο'' means "away," and ''στασίs'' means "standing." Thus, etymologically, we get "standing away" or "standing apart" as the word's meaning. "The word means ‘rebellion,’ ‘mutiny,’ ‘revolt,’ or ‘revolution,’ and it is used in ancient contexts with reference to uprisings against established authority."<ref>Kent P. Jackson, ''From Apostasy to Restoration'' (Deseret Book, 1996), 6.</ref>

In 2 Thessalonians, the apostle Paul said, "Let no man deceive you by any means: for [the Second Coming of Jesus Christ] shall not come, except there come a falling away ["''ἀποστασία''"] first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition" (2 Thessalonians 2:3).

Thus, in contrast to some who believe that external persecution was a primary cause of the Great Apostasy, the New Testament and other passages of scripture identify ''internal rebellion'' as its primary cause. As we shall see, however, external persecution still played a role.

''Mass internal rebellion'' is the primary cause and central, defining feature of the Great Apostasy, but rebellion against what? Ultimately, it was a rebellion against key, essential doctrines taught by Christ and His Apostles. When we talk about someone who is an "apostate" or "apostatizes" from the Church today, we are usually referring to someone who is openly rebelling against the Church and its authority.<ref>General Handbook: Serving in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, “32.6.3.2 Apostasy,” The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, accessed July 17, 2026, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/general-handbook/32-repentance-and-membership-councils#sec17.</ref> ''This'' is the best way to make sense of the Great Apostasy.

This mass internal rebellion was brought about by those who belong to the "great and abominable church": any person or organization that fights against the progress of the Church of God. This church's founder is the Devil (1 Nephi 13:6). The desires of the great and abominable church are as follows:

# Slay the Saints (1 Nephi 13:5)
# Torture the Saints (1 Nephi 13:5)
# Bind the Saints (1 Nephi 13:5)
# Yoke the Saints with iron (1 Nephi 13:5)
# Bring the Saints into captivity for the praise of the world (1 Nephi 13:5, 9)
# Destroy the Saints for the praise of the world (1 Nephi 13:9)
# Obtain gold, silver, silks, scarlets, fine-twined linens, all manner of precious clothing, and harlots (1 Nephi 13:7–8)
# Have the praise of the world (1 Nephi 13:9)
# Pervert the right ways of the Lord (1 Nephi 13:27)
# Blind the eyes of the children of men (1 Nephi 13:27)
# Harden the hearts of the children of men (1 Nephi 13:27)
# Lead souls to hell (1 Nephi 14:3)
# Have dominion over all the earth, among all nations, kindreds, tongues, and people (1 Nephi 14:11)
The internal rebellion against Christ's Church must have been made for one or more of those reasons.

Some have conceptualized the loss of priesthood authority, the changing of ordinances, and the corruption of scripture as part of the definition of the Great Apostasy. However, these are merely ''symptoms'' of the internal rebellion against key, essential doctrines of the Gospel of Jesus Christ as taught by His Apostles. The rebellion against these doctrines led to the creation of many different Christian groups, none of which fully aligned with New Testament teachings on how Christ's Church should be run and what its members should believe. The creators of these sects thus become the ''perpetrators'' of the Great Apostasy, and other Christians who belonged to these churches became the unfortunate and unwitting ''inheritors'' or ''victims'' of it. Nephi says that these people "stumble" (1 Nephi 13:29, 34). He says that the great and abominable church blinded their eyes and hardened their hearts (1 Nephi 13:27). Clearly, there is room to accept the sincere beliefs and profound moral, intellectual, and devotional accomplishments of our spiritual forebearers.

The Apostasy occurred because there was widespread internal rebellion against important doctrines, external persecution removed the Apostles (the only means to correct the errors that were creeping in), and corruption of scripture stood like a dragon guarding the way back to the house of God and ensured that believers wouldn't correct their beliefs through prior apostolic and prophetic statements.
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| title = ===Question: Did Jesus Christ establish a church?===
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If Christ's official, institutional Church was lost, then it must have been established. However, many today doubt that Christ ever established such a church.

The word that Greek uses to describe such a church is "ἐκκλησία" (eh-clay-SEE-ah). In the Gospel of Matthew, after Christ praises Peter for receiving his testimony of Christ from heaven, Christ says, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my ''church'' [''ἐκκλησίαν'']; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it" (Matthew 16:18, emphasis added). This is one of the most explicit pieces of evidence in the New Testament that Christ meant to establish a church.

However, do the lone mentions of an "ἐκκλησία" in Matthew 16 and 18 establish that Christ meant to establish a church? Lothar Coenen expresses doubt in ''The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology'' that the uses of "ἐκκλησία" in the passages from Matthew 16 and 18 can be used to support the notion that Christ established an official, institutional church. They are indeed the only times in all the Gospels that "ἐκκλησία" is used. "In all probability," Coenen writes, "Jesus himself called together the Twelve, but did not found the 'ekklesia' as such in his own lifetime, not even through the institution of the Lord's Supper." However, "This by itself would not settle the question whether he intended the church to come into being."<ref>Lothar Coenen, "Church," in ''The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology'', ed. Colin Brown (Zondervan, 1981), 298.</ref> This should not threaten Latter-day Saint belief. If Jesus at the very least came, taught His people, won them as followers, performed His Atonement, and gave His Apostles both authority to baptize and a commission to baptize His followers after His Ascension, the essential Latter-day Saint belief that Christ established a church is preserved.

New Testament data outside the Gospels clearly support the idea that an institutional church was organized. Acts 2:37–47 describes believers (a) being ''baptized into'' the church, and (b) united by their common belief in apostolic teaching. In both [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Pauline_epistles#Disputed_epistles disputed] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Pauline_epistles#Undisputed_epistles undisputed] Pauline writings, we get the same pattern of officers with authority and followers united by common belief in practice. Ernest Best notes how "[m]inistry in the church is described both in general terms (1 Thess. 5:12; Heb 13:7) and with a variety of more specific titles (e.g. deacons, 1 Tim. 3:8-13; bishops, 3:1-7; elders, 4:17-20...pastors, Eph. 4:11; and prophets, 1 Cor. 12:4-11) and their ministry was a gift from God (Rom. 12:4-8; Eph. 4:7-11)."<ref>Ernest Best, "Church," in ''Harper Collins Bible Dictionary'', ed. Mark Allan Powell (HarperCollins, 1989), 135.</ref> Paul's letters obviously describe real geographic locations where the Church had been established and where Paul had performed ministry.

In short, "Christ had followers, leaders, and rules. That certainly constitutes an organization."<ref>Gilbert W. Scharffs, ''Missionary's Little Book of Answers'' (Covenant Communications, 2002), 185.</ref>
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| title = ===Question: Was there a unified early Christian platform that could be apostatized from?===
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Another question raised is whether there was a unified church to apostatize from. Did the Church have any authoritative beliefs that all believers were bound to uphold? This question has been raised even by defenders of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Former BYU professors and Latter-day Saint apologists Daniel C. Peterson and Stephen D. Ricks wrote:

<blockquote>Terms like "orthodoxy" and "heresy" seem increasingly—to modern objective scholarship—to be mere self-congratulatory epithets worked up by the victors in the dogmatic skirmishes of Christian history. In the earliest Christianity, the two are often impossible to distinguish, at least without the benefit of hindsight. In many areas, the "heretics" were the established church, while the "orthodox" were the damnable minority. And this is not the case in later, "apostate" centuries. The New Testament itself contains conflicting perspectives and positions that, many scholars would contend, resist even the most determined harmonizer.<ref>Daniel C. Peterson and Stephen D. Ricks, ''Offenders for a Word: How Anti-Mormons Play Word Games to Attack the Latter-day Saints'' (FARMS, 1992), 40–41. This argument is put forth forcefully in Taylor G. Petrey, "Purity and Parallels: Constructing the Apostasy Narrative of Early Christianity," in ''Standing Apart: Mormon Historical Consciousness and the Concept of Apostasy'', ed. Miranda Wilcox and John D. Young (Oxford University Press, 2014), 174–95.</ref></blockquote>

This raises the obvious question: From what, then, did the earliest Christians apostatize from?

Clearly, the New Testament authors believed that there was ''an'' authoritative standard against which they could measure other believers and the world around them. Otherwise, it would make no sense for Paul, for example, to have written all his epistles correcting local congregations' beliefs and behaviors.

Below, we will lay out the doctrines we believe the earliest Christians apostatized from. On these points, we believe that the documents contained in the New Testament and other authoritative scripture ''are'' univocal and binding on all believers. Yet, as we will see, various early Christian groups rebelled against these doctrines for various reasons.

Otherwise, it is important to keep a few principles in mind.

First, it is important to distinguish among eternal principles, their application, and the historical narratives in scripture that teach them. Latter-day Saint leaders have at least distinguished the first two.<ref>Ronald E. Pohlman, "[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/1984/10/the-gospel-and-the-church?lang=eng The Gospel and the Church]," ''Ensign'' 14, no. 11 (November 1984): 64.</ref> Eternal principles—such as faith in Jesus Christ, repentance, covenant faithfulness, charity, and holiness—do not change. However, the application of those principles may vary according to a people's circumstances, culture, spiritual maturity, or divine direction, just as God gave different commandments to Israel, the early Church, and the Saints in the latter days. Likewise, the historical accounts preserved in scripture—while teaching eternal principles and their application—are historical accounts. They can teach inspired narratives even if the different accounts contained within scripture differ on particulars.

Second, it is important to keep the doctrine of continuing revelation in mind. Continuing revelation provides an authoritative means of distinguishing between eternal doctrine and temporary applications, clarifying scriptural passages that may appear to be in tension, and resolving questions that sincere readers may answer differently. Rather than expecting every biblical author to express every doctrine identically, the Restoration teaches that God reveals truth "line upon line, precept upon precept" (2 Nephi 28:30; Doctrine and Covenants 98:12), adapting His instructions to the needs of His children across different dispensations while preserving the unchanging principles of the gospel (Doctrine and Covenants 46:15).

Third, differences among biblical authors often reflect ''complementary emphases'' rather than ''mutually exclusive claims''. One writer may stress faith while another emphasizes faithful obedience; one may focus on God's mercy while another highlights His justice; one may describe a practice in one historical setting while another addresses a different audience facing different challenges. Such variations do not necessarily indicate that the underlying doctrine has changed, but that inspired authors selected and emphasized material according to their purposes and audiences.

With these three principles in mind, virtually all of the contradictions in scripture can be reconciled. From this perspective, the multivocality of scripture is not a threat to divine revelation but an illustration of how God has consistently worked through inspired servants, diverse witnesses, and unfolding revelation to testify of Jesus Christ.
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| title = ===Question: Does the Bible predict the Great Apostasy?===
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<wt>
Biblical scriptures predicted the Apostasy long before it happened, and provide evidence for Latter-day Saint belief in it.
=====Old Testament Evidence=====
One of the earliest scriptures that predicts the Apostasy is Amos 8:11–12. It says, "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord. And they shall wander from sea to sea, and from the north even to the east, they shall run to and fro to seek the word of the Lord, and shall not find it." No longer would the Lord send a drought or famine, but rather, He would remove prophets who gave vision and wisdom to the people (Proverbs 29:18).<ref>Gregory Mobley, "Amos," in ''The New Oxford Annotated Bible'', ed. Michael D. Coogan, 5th ed. (Oxford, 2018), 1312n11–12.</ref>

=====New Testament Evidence=====
The New Testament both ''predicts'' the Apostasy's occurrence and ''documents its beginnings''. Latter-day Saints have appealed to a variety of scriptures to support their belief in the Great Apostasy. The New Testament provides the most extensive evidence for Latter-day Saint belief in the Great Apostasy.<ref>Noel B. Reynolds, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/appendix-c-new-testament-evidences-and-prophecies-apostasy-first-century-church Appendix C: New Testament Evidences and Prophecies of Apostasy in the First-Century Church]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 355–69; Kent P. Jackson, "[https://rsc.byu.edu/learn-me/new-testament-prophecies-apostasy New Testament Prophecies of Apostasy]," in ''Learn of Me: History and Teachings of the New Testament'', ed. John Hilton III and Nicholas J. Frederick (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Deseret Book, 2022), 375–90; Kent P. Jackson, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/watch-and-remember-new-testament-and-great-apostasy 'Watch and Remember': The New Testament and the Great Apostasy]," in ''By Study and Also By Faith, Volume 1'', ed. John M. Lundquist and Stephen D. Ricks (FARMS; Deseret Book, 1990), 81–117.</ref>

Below are all New Testament scriptures that predict the Great Apostasy. It was first created by Noel B. Reynolds, a former professor of political science at Brigham Young University.<ref>Noel B. Reynolds, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/appendix-c-new-testament-evidences-and-prophecies-apostasy-first-century-church Appendix C: New Testament Evidences and Prophecies of Apostasy in the First-Century Church]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 358-60.</ref> In the left column is the scripture that Reynolds cites, and in the right column is his summary of it.

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
!width="25%"| '''Scripture'''
!width="75.0%"|'''Reynolds's Description'''
|+'''New Testament Prophecies of the Demise of Christ’s Church'''
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Matthew 13:24–30
||In the parable of the wheat and tares, Jesus describes the kingdom of God being filled with tares sown by his enemy, which are then allowed to grow until the harvest.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Matthew 24:5, 24
||Jesus prophesies to his disciples that before his time comes, many false prophets and false Christs or messiahs will arise, deceiving many.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Acts 20:29-30
||Luke records that Paul had called together the elders of the church in Ephesus to hear his farewell. He pleaded with them to take heed, for he knew that “grievous wolves” should come among them “not sparing the flock” (v. 29), and that even some of the elders themselves would “arise, speaking perverse things, to draw away disciples after them” (v. 30).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Romans 11:19–21
||Paul warns the Roman saints that just as apostate Israel had been cut off, so would the Christians should they fail to “continue in goodness” (v. 22).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Thessalonians 2:3–4
||Paul prophesies that Christ would not return before the “falling away” (v. 3)—the apostasy—and the son of perdition be exposed.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Timothy 4:1–3
||Paul prophesies of future times when Christians will leave the faith and give “heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of devils; speaking lies in hypocrisy;... forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats.”
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Timothy 3:1–9, 12; 4:3–4
||Paul speaks of a coming “perilous” (3:1) time when men, apparently affiliated with the church, will be wicked in so many ways, loving pleasures more than God. These “traitors” (3:4) will have “a form of godliness” (3:5), but they will deny the power that makes godliness possible in men. All that will live godly lives in Christ will suffer persecution (3:12). Apparently speaking again of these same traitors, Paul prophesies that in that future time, “they will not endure sound doctrine” (4:3), but will “turn away” (4:4) from the truth unto fables. And they will find teachers who will justify the indulgence of their lusts.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Peter 2:1–3
||Peter prophesies not only that false teachers will come among the Christians, but also that many will follow “their pernicious ways" (v. 2).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Revelation 13:7
||John is shown in his vision that the beast will “make war with the saints, and ... overcome them.”
|}

In the next table, one can find all the scriptures documenting the widespread rebellion unfolding. This also comes from Reynolds.<ref>Reynolds, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/appendix-c-new-testament-evidences-and-prophecies-apostasy-first-century-church Appendix C]," 360–69.</ref> In the left column is the scripture Reynolds cited, and in the right column is his summary of the scripture.

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
!width="25%"| '''Scripture'''
!width="75.0%"|'''Reynolds's Description'''
|+'''Evidences of First-Century Apostasy from the New Testament'''
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|John 6:66
||Many of Jesus’s disciples left him because of his teachings.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Romans 1:8–32
||Paul congratulates the Roman faithful and contrasts their case with that of those Christians “who hold the truth in unrighteousness” (v. 18), but who by their sins of idolatry, murder, homosexuality, and fornication have changed the truth of God into a lie and will receive severe judgment.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Romans 2:17–24
||Paul confutes the Judaizers in the church who exalt themselves as circumcised Jews and defenders of the law, while they hypocritically commit all kinds of grievous sin and blaspheme the name of God among the Gentiles by their bad examples.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Romans 16:17–18
||Paul recognizes that there are already some Roman Christians who “cause divisions and offenses contrary to the doctrine” (v. 17). These appear to be smooth speakers who deceive the simple believers with their “good words and fair speeches” (v. 18), but not in the service of Christ, but rather to make a living for themselves.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 1:11–12; 3:4
||Paul describes the splintering of churches as church members begin to proclaim allegiance to different leaders, such as Apollos and Paul, rather than Christ.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 4:18
||Pride in the church at Corinth causes some to reject the words of the apostle Paul.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 5:1, 6
||Fornication and incest are named as sins committed by, or perhaps between, church members.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 10:14
||Some Corinthian saints begin to engage in idolatry.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 11:18–11, 29–30, 34
||There are divisions and heresies among the Christians at Corinth. The Corinthians desecrate the sacrament by substituting for it pagan feasts. Because they take the sacrament unworthily, they eat and drink damnation to themselves, and many have been made weak and sickly or have even died for it. There are also other offenses which Paul hopes to straighten out when he comes.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Corinthians 14:1–37
||There is confusion in the Corinthian church. Many are claiming to prophesy and to speak in tongues by inspiration. And the women, who should be silent, have joined in the fray. Paul pleads for good order and peace, which would be an indication that they were guided by God’s inspiration.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Corinthians 3:1; 72
||Members begin to reject legitimate authority, and Paul’s credentials appear to be questioned.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Corinthians 6:14–17
||Paul pleads with the Corinthians to separate themselves from the heathens with whom they seem to be joined in their lives. Specifically, they appear to be participating in idol worship at heathen temples.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Corinthians 11:3–4, 12–15
||Paul argues to the Corinthian church that they should follow him rather than those who come preaching another Jesus, or another spirit or gospel. Paul recognizes his own weaknesses, but these others “are false apostles, deceitful workers, transforming themselves into the apostles of Christ” (v. 13). But if Satan himself can be “transformed into an angel of light” (v. 14), it is not to be unexpected that his ministers should “ be transformed as the ministers of righteousness” (v. 15).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Galatians 1:6–9; 3:1
||Local leaders and false teachers are changing the gospel of Christ and are preaching “another gospel” (v. 6) as the truth. Paul marvels that the Christians there are “so soon removed from him” (v. 6) to these teachers of other gospels, and he curses all who are preaching their own gospels.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Galatians 4:8–11; 5:7, 15–22
||Paul bemoans the retrogression of the church membership for their disobedience, their backbiting among church members, and their observation of pagan and Jewish holidays. He calls on them to stand fast in their Christian liberty gained through the atonement of Christ and not to let themselves get entangled again with the works of the flesh—“adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like” (5:21)—of which he has warned them before. The sense is clearly that some significant part of the Galatian members have returned to their sinful ways.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Ephesians 4:1–5:21
||Paul describes for the Christians in Ephesus the kinds of lives, the unity, and spiritual consistency that they can enjoy, if they would live according to “the vocation wherewith [they] are called” (4:1). If they will heed his call, they can come to a “unity of the faith... unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ... [and] be no more children, tossed to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by the sleight of men, and cunning craftiness, whereby they lie in wait to deceive” (4:13-14). In the process, he names a long list of sinful acts that are preventing them from leaving the world of the Gentiles and establishing a community of perfected saints. Paul calls them to stop walking “as other Gentiles walk, in the vanity of their mind” (4:17), with their “understanding darkened being alienated from God . . . because of the blindness of their heart” (4:18). As converts to Christ, they are taught to put off works of greediness and lasciviousness. They must put away lying, anger, stealing, bitterness, and evil speaking. He pleads with them to become “followers of God ... walking] in love” (5:1-2). If they would do this and be proper saints, such sins as fornication, uncleanness, covetousness, filthiness, foolish talk and jesting would never need to be named among
them. But whatever the vain men among them might say, “no whoremonger, nor unclean person, nor covetous man, who is an idolater, hath any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ” (5:5-6). But all things which are shameful even to speak of, that are being done in secret, shall be “made manifest by the light” (5:13). Again, he pleads with them that they be “not unwise . . . [and] drunk with wine” (5:17-18), but that they be filled with the Spirit.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Colossians 2:8–9, 18
||Paul writes to the faithful brethren at Colosse and encourages them to stand fast in the gospel of Christ that he taught them and not to heed the beguiling men who seek to spoil them through philosophy and vain deceit, after the traditions of men.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Thessalonians 2:7–9
||Paul calls upon the Christians of Thessaly to withstand the strong delusions and lying wonders of their times. If they can stand fast, they will obtain the love and glory of Christ.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Thessalonians 3:6
||Paul further notes that the Thessalonians are supporting disorderly busybodies who do not accept Paul’s epistles. He calls on local believers to separate themselves from such and not to support their leadership.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Timothy 1:3–4, 6–7, 19–20
||Paul explains why he left Timothy at Ephesus to call upon those Christians who were teaching false doctrines, “fables and endless genealogies” (v. 4), which only raise questions without edifying. These teachings have caused some to swerve and turn aside “unto vain jangling; desiring to be teachers of the law” (vv.6-7) but without understanding. While among his own disciples, Timothy has been faithful, Hymenaeus and Alexander have blasphemed and “made shipwreck” (v. 19) of their faith, and Paul has delivered them to the buffetings of Satan.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Timothy 5:15
||Paul advises Timothy about how to address growing domestic apostasies in the Church and acknowledges that through these problems, members have “already turned aside after Satan.”
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Timothy 6:1–10
||Paul instructs Timothy on how to distinguish in the church between faithful teachers of godliness and those who are seeking the praise and riches of this world. The teaching of the latter group is marked by envy, strife, and “perverse disputings” (v. 5) that are destitute of truth. Those who love money rather than godliness “fall into temptation and a snare, and into many foolish and hurtful lusts” (v. 9).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 Timothy 6:20–21
||Timothy is further warned to beware those Christians who profess the faith, but who are engaged in “profane and vain babblings, and oppositions of science, falsely so called” (v. 20).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Timothy 1:8–18; 2:16–18; 4:14–17
||Paul writes Timothy to encourage him not to be ashamed of his testimony of Jesus or of his affiliation with Paul. He cites two prominent Christians by name as examples and complains “that all they which are in Asia be turned away from me” (1:15). He excepts “the house of Onesiphorus” of Ephesus who “refreshed” Paul and was “not ashamed of [Paul’s] chain” (1:16). Timothy is warned specifically to avoid “profane and vain babblings” (2:16); for they will increase unto more ungodliness, as in the cases of Hymenaeus and Philetus, who are teaching a false understanding of the resurrection. Further, Paul recites the specific case of a coppersmith who did Paul “much evil,”for he “greatly withstood our words” (4:14-15). And no one in the congregation would stand with Paul against him.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Titus 1:10–14
||Paul left Titus in Crete specifically “to set in order the things that are wanting” (v. 5). He is warned to be careful who he selects to be elders or bishops because “there are many unruly and vain talkers and deceivers . . . who subvert whole houses, teaching things which they ought not, for filthy lucre’s sake” (vv. 10-11). Paul hopes that sharp rebukes may return them to soundness of faith, so that they will no longer give “heed to Jewish fables, and commandments of men, that turn from the truth” (v. 14).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Titus 2:1–15
||Paul exhorts Titus to set the church in order, as all age groups from both sexes need to be raised from inappropriate behavior, that Christ might “redeem [them] from all iniquity and purify unto himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works” (v. 14).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Titus 3:9–11
||Paul goes on to enumerate other failings of the members, which he seems to think can be corrected by Titus’s teaching. But he also recognizes the serious dangers of those who are focused on “foolish questions, and genealogies, and contentions, and strivings about the law” (v. 9). If a man maintains his heretical position after being admonished a second time, Titus is to reject him as a sinner and subverter of others.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|James 1–2
||James recognizes that all are tempted and that the members of the church must not only speak the truth, but their lives must reflect comparable good works. Otherwise their religion is vain. In addition to other sins, he emphasizes the practice of despising the poor and ignoring the teaching of Christ to love their neighbor. For until their works meet these expectations of Christ, their faith is dead.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|James 4:1–8
||James describes “wars and fightings” (v. 1) among the Christians which arise from their own lusts. Calling them adulterers and enemies to God, he urges them to be humble and resist the devil, that God may cleanse their hands and purify their double-minded hearts.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|2 Peter 2:1–22; 3:16–18
||Peter warns the members against those of their own number who engage in all kinds of sins, including “damnable heresies” (2:1), covetousness, walking “after the flesh in the lust of uncleanness” (2:10), evil speaking, “having eyes full of adultery” (2:14). These have all gone astray. For having once escaped the world “through the knowledge of the Lord” (2:20), and becoming again entangled therein, and overcome, the latter end is worse with them than the beginning. They exemplify the proverbs of the dog that is turned to his own vomit and the washed sow that returns to wallowing in the mire (2:22). After discussing false teachings by scoffers in the church, he warns the members again not to wrest the scriptures or to be led away by the errors of the wicked, but to remain steadfast and grow in grace and in the knowledge of the Lord (3:16-18).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|1 John 2:9–27; 4:1
||John warns the members that any who hate their brothers are in darkness. He warns them not to love the world, the lusts of the flesh or the pride of the eyes, as these things are “not of the Father” (2:16). For “even now are there many antichrists” (2:18), that arose from within the church. But now they deny the Father and the Son. But the anointing which the members have received can protect them from these seducers. Further, because there are many false prophets, James teaches those who would be faithful how to distinguish the true from the false.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|3 John 1:9–10
||A prideful and apostate local leader, presumably an elder or a bishop, rejects apostolic authority and even excommunicates those who stand up for the apostles.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Jude 1:3–19
||Jude writes to the faithful, whom he fears have been taken in by ungodly men who have crept in unawares, denying Christ and turning his grace into lasciviousness. Jude invokes the Old Testament and other writings as examples and prophecies of this kind of thing and calls the ungodly among them “murmurers, complainers, walking after their own lusts; and their mouth speaketh great swelling words, having men’s persons in admiration because of advantage” (v. 16).
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Revelations 2–3
||John sees the Son of Man, who commands him to write to the seven churches. Ephesus has done many good things, is now fallen and must repent, having left the Lord (2:5-6). The church in Pergamos has held fast against Satan, but harbors proponents of the doctrine of Balaam who eat meat sacrificed to idols and commit fornication. There are also Christians there who hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitans, which the Lord hates (2:12-16). In spite of many good works, the church at Thyatira permits Jezebel to pass herself off as a prophetess while seducing the Lord’s servants to fornicate and to eat things sacrificed unto idols (2:18-20). There appear to be only a few members in Sardis who “have not defiled their garments” and who are worthy to walk with the Lord (3:1-6). Laodiceans focused on wealth, are comfortable, and do not recognize their need for the Lord’s aid. They are neither cold nor hot, and the Lord will spew them out (3:16-17).
|}

====Scriptural Objections to the Great Apostasy====
Christian apologists claim that the Church could never have been lost during the Great Apostasy because Jesus predicted that it would always remain on the earth. Some apologists claim that the Church was never lost based on a scripture from the book of Jude. Both claims are deficient for a few reasons.

=====Matthew 16:18 — The Gates of Hell=====
Matthew 16:18 reads, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."

Some Christian apologists claim this means that the earthly Church organization would never be taken away. However, that interpretation runs into several problems.<ref>Barry Robert Bickmore, ''Restoring the Ancient Church: Joseph Smith and Early Christianity'', expanded and revised ed. (FairMormon, 2014), 48–49.</ref>

=====Jude 1:3 — The Faith Delivered "Once for All" to the Saints?=====
Jude 1:3 reads, "Beloved, when I gave all diligence to write unto you of the common salvation, it was needful for me to write unto you, and exhort you that ye should earnestly contend for the faith which was once delivered unto the saints."

Some contend that "once" here means ''one and only one time''.<ref>Anthony A. Hoekema, ''The Four Major Cults'' (Paternoster Press, 1963), 33.</ref> This belief is reflected in the [https://biblehub.com/jude/1-3.htm vast majority of biblical translations]. For example, in the ''New International Version'' (NIV), Jude 1:3 reads, "Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt compelled to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was ''once for all'' entrusted to God’s holy people" (emphasis added). The Greek term translated as "once" or "once for all" is ''hapax''. This term ''can'' mean simply "once," as the King James Version renders it.<ref>Johan Lust, Erik Eynikel, and Katrin Hauspie, ''A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint'', rev ed. (Stuttgart, 2003), s.v. "απαξ".</ref> If that is true, then the fact that the faith was delivered "once" in the past does not preclude the possibility of being revealed again in the future. The other verse in Jude that uses ''hapax'', Jude 1:5, does not support the "once for all" translation: "I will therefore put you in remembrance, though ye once (''hapax'') knew this, how that the Lord having saved the people out of the land of Egypt, afterward destroyed them that believed not."

Other apologists point to the word translated as “delivered”, ''paradothaysay'', and claim this indicates the faith was delievered only once in the past.<ref>Ron Rhodes and Marian Bodine, Reasoning from the Scriptures with the Mormons (Harvest House Publishers, 1995), 76.</ref> ''Paradothaysay'' is an ''aorist'' conjugation of the Greek verb ''paradidomi'': to deliver or hand over. "Aorist" means that the verb was initiated and completed once in the past.

For the sake of argument, let's assume that the "once for all" translation is correct. It is ironic that any Christian apologist would use this verse. If their interpretation is true, it would mean that any New Testament book after Jude is ''not'' part of the deposit of faith; the “faith delivered to the saints” by the Apostles. According to most current critical scholarship, this would include the books of 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, 1 Timothy, Titus, 2 Timothy, Revelation, and 2 Peter.<ref>This line was written in 2026.</ref> These books, including their unique claims and theology, are evidence that ancient Christians did not view Jude’s claim the same way modern Protestant apologists do. Indeed, if this interpretation were true, it would mean that ''Jude itself'' should not be part of the New Testament books considered inspired and authoritative. The passage affirms that Jesus delivered the faith ''to the Apostles'' in the past once for all, and that the Saints should contend for that faith today. It does ''not'' affirm that the ''public revelation'' of that faith could not continue after the passage was written. It also does not affirm that the Saints could not apostatize from that faith.
</wt>
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: How did the deaths of Jesus's Apostles contribute to the Great Apostasy?===
| state = closed
| content =
<wt>
====Teeing the Ball Up: The Loss of Apostolic Authority====
The best way to make an error permanent is to ensure that there is no authoritative way to correct it. The death or removal of Apostles with priesthood authority from God from the earth ensured such a demise. The scriptures predict that the great and abominable church would fight against the Apostles of the Lamb (1 Nephi 11:34–36). After their death, the adversary sowed tares among the wheat, symbolizing those that rebelled against the true Church of Christ and its teachings (Doctrine and Covenants 86:1–3). The Apostolic authority was restored to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery by Peter, James, and John (Doctrine and Covenants 27:13). It is clear from historical scholarship that apostolic authority was considered necessary to lead the church, that all valid Apostles died, and that there was no apostolic authority on the earth until it was restored to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery.

=====The Necessity of Apostolic Authority=====
The New Testament and other historical documents treat the Apostles as the chiefest leaders of the Church.

In Matthew 16:19, Christ tells the Apostles, "And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." What does the language of "binding" and "loosing" refer to? Protestant scholars assure us that this refers to the power of the Apostles to permit and ban various forms of behavior among the covenant people.<ref>W.D. Davis and Dale C. Allison, ''Matthew: A Shorter Commentary'' (T&T Clark International, 2004), 270–71, emphasis in original; quoted in Robert S. Boylan, ''After the Order of the Son of God: The Biblical and Historical Evidence for Latter-day Saint Theology of the Priesthood'' (CreateSpace, 2018), 121–22. See also Oscar Cullmann, ''Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr'' (SCM Press, 1953), 204–5; quoted in Boylan, ''After the Order'', 122. Finally, see Craig S. Keener, ''IVP Bible Background Commentary New Testament'' (Intervarsity Press, 1993), 90; quoted in Boylan, After the Order, 122.</ref> Matthew 18:18 confirms that all of the Twelve had this authority. This was the authority to establish doctrine for the Church (Acts 2:42). This authority is evident from the fact that, when the New Testament canon was eventually compiled and adopted, one of the criteria for including a given book in it was ''apostolicity''—that is, the characteristic of having been written by an apostle.<ref>Daniel Becerra, "[https://rsc.byu.edu/new-testament-history-culture-society/canonization-new-testament The Canonization of the New Testament]," in ''New Testament History, Culture, and Society: A Background to the Texts of the New Testament'', ed. Lincoln H. Blumell (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Deseret Book, 2019), 780.</ref> The Apostles were also given power ("''δύναμις''" [DOO-nah-mees]) and authority ("''ἐξουσία''" [ex-oo-SEE-ah]) to cast out all devils (Matthew 10:1) and to cure diseases (Luke 9:1).

The Apostle Paul taught, "And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; For the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ: Till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ" (Ephesians 4:11–13). Notice that the requirement of having prophets and apostles is necessary until we all come to a unity of faith. As there is no such unity now, there must be apostles and prophets in Christ's Church until such unity is established.

When Judas died, the eleven remaining Apostles sought to replace him, eventually choosing Mathias by revelation (Acts 1:12-26). This shows that the original eleven apostles sought to perpetuate the institution of the Twelve after Christ's death. According to some critics, however, Acts 1 shows Judas being replaced before Pentecost only so the Twelve could be restored as eyewitnesses of Christ’s ministry and resurrection. It does not establish an endlessly replenished global priesthood board. These critics further note that when James, the brother of John, is killed in Acts 12, Acts records no replacement at all. So, according to these critics, Matthias proves only that Judas’s vacancy was treated as unique, not that every apostolic death required institutional backfilling forever.

=====Early Christian Bishops and Apostolic Authority=====

=====Scripture Outside the Model=====
Some might point out that others outside of the Twelve are called "apostles" in the New Testament. These include individuals such as Paul, Barnabas, and James, the brother of Jesus (1 Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19), as well as Andronicus and Junia (Romans 16:7). Further, one might point out that some of the New Testament scripture accepted as authoritative comes from individuals who were not part of the Twelve. This includes Jude and Paul.

First, some of these individuals may have replaced the Twelve when they died. That is part of our solution to Acts 12 and the death of James, brother of John, above.

Second, the Greek word translated as "apostle," ''ἀπόστολος'', literally means "one who is sent off." Other common translations of that term include "messenger," "envoy," or "ambassador." Thus, referring to someone as an "apostle" does not necessarily make them one of the Twelve with the special authority Jesus gave them.

=====The Fate of the Apostles=====
The best historical scholarship available places the death of the last Apostle only as late as 134 AD.<ref>Kurt Manwaring, "Fact vs. Fiction: How Did All the Apostles Die?" ''From the Desk'', July 4, 2026, https://fromthedesk.org/how-did-all-the-apostles-die/.</ref>

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
!width="11%"|'''Apostle'''
!width="11%"|'''Location'''
!width="11%"|'''Killed By'''
!width="11%"|'''Reason'''
!width="11%"|'''Manner'''
!width="11%"|'''Source'''
!width="11%"|'''Date'''
!width="11%"|'''Historical Likelihood'''
|+'''The Fate of the Apostles'''
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Peter
||Rome, Italy
||Roman authorities under Emperor Nero
||Preaching Christ during the Roman persecution of Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in (c. AD 64–67).
||Crucified
||Tradition
||64–68 AD
||Moderate-High
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Andrew
||Patras, Greece
||Roman governor of Achaia
||Refused to stop preaching Christianity.
||Crucified
||Tradition
||60 AD
||Low-Moderate
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|James G
||Jerusalem
||Herod Agrippa
||To please certain Jewish leaders who opposed the Christian movement (Acts 12:1–2).
||Beheaded
||Acts 12
||44 AD
||High
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|John
||Ephesus
||None
||Exiled to Patmos under Roman authority for preaching the Gospel (Revelation 1:9), then made a translated being (3 Nephi 28:6–8; Doctrine and Covenants 7:2–3).
||Natural
||Tradition
||100 AD
||Moderate
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Philip
||Hierapolis
||Local authorities in Phrygia
||Converted prominent individuals and challenged paganism.
||Crucified
||Apocrypha
||80 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Bartholomew
||Armenia
||Armenian or local pagan rulers
||Converted members of the royal family to Christianity.
||Flayed
||Tradition
||69–71 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Thomas
||Chennai, India
||Local rulers in India
||Converted many people, including members of the nobility.
||Speared
||Tradition
||72 AD
||Moderate
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Matthew
||Ethiopia
||Local rulers
||Refused to stop teaching and converting people.
||Natural or Stabbed
||Legend
||68 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|James L
||Jerusalem
||Jewish religious leaders
||Preached that Jesus was the Messiah
||Stoned
||Josephus
||62 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Jude
||Persia/Beirut
||Local authorities in Persia
||Missionary activities and conversions
||Beaten/Axed
||Apocrypha
||65 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Simon
||Persia
||Persian or Roman authorities
||Preaching Christianity
||Sawn
||Tradition
||65–107 AD
||Low
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Judas
||Jerusalem
||Himself
||After betraying Jesus, he died in remorse (Matthew 27:3–5; Acts 1:18–19 describes the aftermath differently).
||Suicide
||Math. 27 / Acts 1
||AD 30–33
||High
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|Matthias
||Jerusalem or Colchis
||Jewish religious authorities
||For preaching Christ as the Messiah
||Stoned or Crucified
||Tradition
||80 AD
||Moderate
|-
|Three Nephite Apostles
||New World
||None
||Asked Jesus to become translated beings
||Translated
||The Book of Mormon
||AD 33–34
||High
|-
|Nine Other Nephite Apostles
||New World
||None
||Asked to finish their ministry and then “speedily come unto [Christ],” and Jesus promised that after they were 72 years old, they would come to Him (3 Nephi 28:2–3). Mormon later summarizes: after about 100 years, “the disciples of Jesus . . . had all gone to the paradise of God, save it were the three who should tarry” (4 Nephi 1:14).
||Natural
||The Book of Mormon
||AD 33–AD 134
||High
|}

=====The Apostle John and the Three Nephites=====
Some have argued that Latter-day Saints do not truly believe that apostolic authority ceased on the earth since they also affirm that John the Beloved and the Three Nephites (who were ordained as members of the Twelve during Jesus's New World ministry) held such apostolic authority.

These men are now ''translated beings''. As Mark L. McConkie explained, "Latter-day Saint scriptures speak of a unique class of beings, persons whom the Lord has 'translated' or changed from a mortal state to one in which they are temporarily not subject to death, and in which they experience neither pain nor sorrow except for the sins of the world. Such beings appear to have much greater power than mortals. All translated beings will eventually experience physical death and resurrection (MD, p. 807-808). Translation is a necessary condition in special instances to further the work of the Lord."<ref>Mark L. McConkie, "[https://eom.byu.edu/index.php?title=Translated_Beings Translated Beings]," in ''Encyclopedia of Mormonism'', ed. Daniel H. Ludlow, 6 vols. (MacMillan Publishing, 1992), 4:1485.</ref>

John the Beloved wanted “power over death” so that he could bring souls unto Christ (Doctrine and Covenants 7:2). Christ gave John that power. John was to remain on the earth until Christ’s Second Coming. Until that time, he was to “prophesy before nations, kindreds, tongues, and people” (Doctrine and Covenants 7:3). John was made “as a flaming fire and a ministering angel” and was assigned to “minister for those who shall be heirs of salvation who dwell on the earth” (Doctrine and Covenants 7:6). The Savior told Peter that He would make Peter “minister for John and for thy brother James.” Importantly, the Savior said, “and unto you three I will give this power and keys of this ministry until I come” (Doctrine and Covenants 7:7, emphasis added). John then appeared with Peter and James, with apostolic keys "committed" to them, to give those keys to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (Doctrine and Covenants 27:13). Those keys were defined as the keys of Joseph and Oliver’s ministry (Doctrine and Covenants 27:12) and the “keys of [Christ’s] kingdom, and a dispensation of the gospel for the last times; and for the fulness of times” (Doctrine and Covenants 27:13).

The Three Nephites were made to do a work similar to that of John the Apostle. Before the Great Apostasy, Mormon records that they ministered unto "all the people," uniting and baptizing as many as would believe into the Church (3 Nephi 28:18). They apparently ministered unto Mormon and Moroni (3 Nephi 28:26; Mormon 8:10–11). Three others were ordained as Apostles in their stead after their translation (4 Nephi 1:14). The Lord physically took them away from the Nephites because of the Nephites' prevailing wickedness (Mormon 1:13). Mormon tells us that there would be a moment in the Lord's timetable in which the Three Nephites would again "minister unto all the scattered tribes of Israel, and unto all nations, kindreds, tongues, and people, and shall bring out of them unto Jesus many souls, that their desire may be fulfilled, and also because of the convincing power of God which is in them" (3 Nephi 28:29). By praying to God they can show themselves unto whomever seems good to them (3 Nephi 28:30)

John and the Three Nephites must have retained apostolic authority since John eventually ordained Joseph and Oliver to that authority. However, it is also clear that they did not exercise that authority to administer the Church. This shows that there must be a distinction between priesthood ''power'', priesthood ''keys'' or ''authority'', and ''permission to exercise'' those keys or bestow them upon others. God did not enact a custodial loss of priesthood authority on the earth, but a practical loss. Even during the Great Apostasy, He has allowed John and the Three Nephites to minister unto specific people(s) and bring them to salvation and exaltation. However, as translated beings, they were not permitted to use their keys to restore and administer the Church. Allowing beings that cannot taste death to administer the Church may have been an improper use of divine authority. People would notice whether four individuals could never taste death, and that may have taken away the need to exercise faith.
</wt>
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: What kind of internal rebellion actually occurred, and what were its effects?===
| state = closed
| content =
<wt>
====The Rebellion: Doctrines Rejected, Scripture Corrupted, Groups Formed, Priesthood Keys and Spiritual Gifts Lost====
The internal rebellion that occurred was against certain key doctrines adopted by the first-century Church. Rebellion against these doctrines was supremely blasphemous. The cumulative effect of these changes was to (1) change God's nature (which had far-reaching ramifications), (2) shut His mouth so that He cannot speak and correct error, and (3) separate us from important tools that teach us about and allow us to participate in the Atonement of Jesus Christ. While other changes could be cited—such as baptism for the dead, multiple heavens, and the meaning of grace—the changes that follow have greater, more fundamental impacts. Instead of asking how much error crept into the Church before it was considered in Apostasy, we are establishing the case on the ''kind'' of error that crept into the Church. This allows us to affirm that much truth remained intact after the Great Apostasy. Not all truth was lost. It also allows us to defend against those who might say the Church is in apostasy today for not living by certain doctrines revealed in its earlier days.

We might also ask, "How many Christians had to rebel in order for the Apostasy to be 'great'"? In this case, probably a simple majority of over 50%.

=====The Key Doctrines=====
As mentioned before, the Apostasy resulted from the rejection of key doctrines. Below, we explore some of the possibilities. It is important that we do not overclaim regarding what needs to be a part of the ancient Church. Joseph Smith explained that the dispensation of the fullness of times was "a whole and complete and perfect union, and welding together of dispensations, and keys, and powers, and glories," that this dispensation included all dispensations, keys, powers, and glories "from the days of Adam even to the present time. '''And not only this, but those things which never have been revealed from the foundation of the world, but have been kept hid from the wise and prudent''', shall be revealed unto babes and sucklings in this, the dispensation of the fulness of times" (Doctrine and Covenants 128:18, emphasis added). The Restoration does not need to be a one-for-one match to the primitive church to be an authentic restoration.

======An Embodied God======
By the 2nd century, Christians were teaching that God created the universe out of nothing. As observed by James Hubler,

<blockquote>Creatio ex nihilo appeared suddenly in the latter half of the second century c.e. Not only did creatio ex nihilo lack precedent, it stood in firm opposition to all the philosophical schools of the Greco-Roman world. As we have seen, the doctrine was not forced upon the Christian community by their revealed tradition, either in Biblical texts or the Early Jewish interpretation of them. As we will also see it was not a position attested in the New Testament doctrine or even sub-apostolic writings. It was a position taken by the apologists of the late second century, Tatian and Theophilus, and developed by various ecclesiastical writers thereafter, by Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen. Creatio ex nihilo represents an innovation in the interpretive traditions of revelation and cannot be explained merely as a continuation of tradition.<ref>James N. Hubler, ''Creatio ex Nihilo: Matter, Creation, and the Body in Classical and Christian Philosophy through Aquinas'' (University of Pennsylvania, 1995), 102.</ref></blockquote>

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] died by AD 185. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus Irenaeus] (191 AD), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen Origen] (253 AD), and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian] (220 AD) all died by the third century AD. This doctrine they taught contravened the Bible. John 17:3 teaches, “And this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent.” By not knowing the true God, the Christians certainly fell into apostasy.

It has been well-documented that, according to the earliest Christian conception of God, God is corporeal.<ref>David L. Paulsen, "
[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/divine-embodiment-earliest-christian-understanding-god Divine Embodiment: The Earliest Christian Understanding of God]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 239–93; David L. Paulsen, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509938?seq=1 Early Christian Belief in a Corporeal Deity: Origen and Augustine as Reluctant Witnesses]," ''The Harvard Theological Review'' 83, no. 2 (April 1990): 105–16; Carl W. Griffin and David L. Paulsen, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4150740?searchText=&searchUri=&ab_segments=&searchKey=&refreqid=fastly-default%3Ac6ac1ac8d9fbe24b5ad2d5342f4778d2&initiator=recommender&seq=1 Augustine and the Corporeality of God]," ''The Harvard Theological Review'' 95, no. 1 (January 2002): 97-118.</ref> The most current scholarly consensus is that the biblical data support the corporeality of God.<ref>See generally S. Tamar Kamionkowski and Wonil Kim, eds., ''Bodies, Embodiment, and Theology of the Hebrew Bible'' (T&T Clark International, 2010); Charles Halton, ''A Human-Shaped God: Theology of an Embodied God'' (Westminster John Knox Press, 2021); Brittany E. Wilson, ''The Embodied God: Seeing the Divine in Luke-Acts and the Early Church'' (Oxford University Press, 2021); Andreas Wagner, ''God's Body: The Anthropomorphic God in the Old Testament'', trans. Marion Salzmann (T&T Clark, 2019); Christoph Markschies, ''God's Body: Jewish, Christian, and Pagan Images of God'' (Baylor University Press, 2019); Benjamin D. Sommer, ''The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011); Francesca Stavarakopolou, ''God: An Anatomy'' (Alfred A. Knopf, 2021).</ref>

======The Mode of Baptism======
Changes to the mode of baptism may also be viewed as evidence of the Great Apostasy because they altered the ordinance's symbolic connection to the atoning death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The New Testament consistently portrays baptism by immersion as a reenactment of the Savior's burial and resurrection. Paul taught, "Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death: that like as Christ was raised up from the dead...even so we also should walk in newness of life" (Romans 6:4; see also Romans 6:3–5). Going down into the water symbolizes Christ's death and burial, while rising from the water symbolizes His resurrection and the believer's new life in Christ.

This symbolism is more than an illustrative ritual—it teaches fundamental truths about the Atonement. Baptism unites the believer with Christ's redemptive work, signifying the death of the "old man" of sin and rebirth through the power of the Resurrection. Because the ordinance itself preaches the gospel, preserving its divinely revealed form is significant.

The earliest Christians generally practiced baptism by immersion where circumstances permitted, a practice reflected in the New Testament and supported by many early Christian writings. Over time, however, affusion (pouring) and eventually sprinkling became increasingly common, particularly in cases involving the sick, infants, or practical necessity, and later gained broader ecclesiastical acceptance. While many Christians viewed these developments as legitimate adaptations, Latter-day Saints see them as evidence that the original ordinance had been modified after the loss of apostolic authority.

From a Latter-day Saint perspective, the issue is not merely one of ritual preference but of preserving the doctrine embodied in the ordinance itself. If baptism is intended to represent participation in Christ's death, burial, and resurrection, then changing its mode necessarily weakens or obscures that symbolism. The Restoration's return to baptism by immersion under proper priesthood authority is therefore understood as a restoration of both the ordinance and the profound doctrine of the Atonement that the ordinance was designed to proclaim.

======Closing the Canon======
The widespread belief that the canon of scripture had permanently closed may itself be evidence of the Great Apostasy. Although the process of recognizing the books of the New Testament unfolded gradually over several centuries, by the fourth and fifth centuries, many Christians had come to regard the biblical canon as complete and closed, with no expectation of additional scripture or authoritative revelation.

Throughout the Bible, God consistently speaks to His children through living prophets, adding new revelation as circumstances require. The New Testament supplemented the Old Testament, and neither Jesus nor His apostles taught that God would forever cease revealing His word after the apostolic age. Instead, the New Testament encourages believers to "despise not prophesyings" (1 Thessalonians 5:20), to "covet to prophesy" (1 Corinthians 14:39), and teaches that Christ gave apostles and prophets "for the perfecting of the saints...till we all come in the unity of the faith" (Ephesians 4:11–13).

If God truly intends to guide His Church through continuing revelation, then the loss of that expectation represents a profound spiritual change. The conviction that God had finished speaking effectively removed the expectation of new prophets, new scripture, and divine direction for new circumstances. Latter-day Saints, therefore, see the doctrine of a closed canon not merely as a theological conclusion, but as a symptom of a Church that no longer expected or received the revelatory voice of God.

This perspective does not imply that God abandoned humanity or ceased inspiring individuals. Rather, it suggests that the institutional Church gradually lost the prophetic authority through which binding revelation for the whole Church was received. The Restoration's claim of continuing revelation and an open canon is therefore not an innovation but a return to the biblical pattern, in which God repeatedly declares, "Surely the Lord God will do nothing, but he revealeth his secret unto his servants the prophets" (Amos 3:7). The Restoration's addition of the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and ongoing prophetic revelation reflects the conviction that a living God continues to speak to His children today.

======The Change of Covenants======
Nephi mentions "many covenants of the Lord" that were "taken away" from the Bible by the great and abominable church (1 Nephi 13:26). What does "many covenants" refer to?

BYU professors Nicolas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer argue that the Book of Mormon presents the Great Apostasy primarily as the rise of ''replacement theology'': the belief that the Christian Church permanently replaced Israel as God's covenant people. They contend that the Book of Mormon emphasizes a ''remnant theology'', teaching that God's covenants with Israel remain in force and that Gentiles are invited to be grafted into those covenants rather than supplant Israel. They build this case primarily from 1 Nephi 13, arguing that the "plain and precious things" removed from the Bible largely concerned God's enduring covenant with Israel and its future gathering. They reinforce this interpretation with 2 Nephi 25–30, Jacob 5, 3 Nephi 16, 20, and 21, and Mormon 5, all of which emphasize Israel's eventual restoration and the centrality of the gathering of Israel in the last days. They also appeal to Romans 9–11, particularly Paul's olive tree analogy, along with the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 12 and Isaiah's prophecies of Israel's restoration, to argue that both the Bible and the Book of Mormon teach that Gentile Christians become part of Israel's covenant family rather than replacing it. In their view, the Restoration restores this covenant-centered understanding of God's work, making the gathering of Israel—not merely the reestablishment of ecclesiastical authority—the defining answer to the Great Apostasy.<ref>Frederick and Spencer, "[https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/remnant-or-replacement-outlining-a-possible-apostasy-narrative Remnant or Replacement]," 105–27.</ref> In a future article, they will give evidence to support the narrative they have constructed, and it will be added here. As examples of this type of loss of knowledge of the covenantal status of Jews, Dr. Spencer has hinted that the article will appeal to people like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Martyr Justin Martyr] (c. 90 AD – c. 165 AD) in his ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (published c. 155–160 AD), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian] (c. 155 AD – c. 220 AD) in his ''Against the Jews'' (published c. 197 AD), and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope Marcion of Sinope] (c. 85 – c. 160) and his attempts to decouple the god of the Old Testament from the god of the New.<ref>Joseph M. Spencer, ''The Vision of All: Twenty-five Lectures on Isaiah in Nephi's Record'' (Greg Kofford Books, 2016), 8.</ref>

One aspect of the Great Apostasy identified by Latter-day Saint scholars is the gradual separation of Christian ordinances from their original covenantal context. As Bachman and Reynolds explain, early Christians inherited a rich biblical tradition in which covenants represented binding relationships between God and His people, yet over time, much of historic Christianity increasingly came to understand sacraments primarily as channels through which divine grace was transmitted rather than as covenant-making acts involving both divine promises and human commitments. Although some Reformers, particularly Heinrich Bullinger, sought to recover a covenant-centered understanding of baptism and other sacred rites, the broader Christian tradition often maintained a distinction between sacrament and covenant that differed from the Restoration emphasis that ordinances are essential covenant encounters with God. From a Latter-day Saint perspective, the restoration of the connection between ordinances and covenants represents a recovery of an important biblical pattern in which baptism, the sacrament, and temple ordinances are not merely symbolic practices but sacred acts through which individuals enter into binding relationships with Christ and receive His promised blessings.<ref>Bryson L. Bachman and Noel B. Reynolds, “[https://rsc.byu.edu/prelude-restoration/traditional-christian-sacraments-covenants Traditional Christian Sacraments and Covenants],” in ''Prelude to the Restoration: From Apostasy to the Restored Church'' (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Deseret Book, 2004), 24–39.</ref>

A significant feature of the post-apostolic transformation of Christianity was the decline of covenant as a central organizing concept in Christian thought. As Reynolds argues, the earliest Christians understood their relationship with God through the biblical framework of covenant, viewing Christ’s Atonement as the establishment of a “new covenant” that fulfilled and continued God’s covenant dealings with humanity. However, as Christianity expanded into the Greco-Roman world, covenant language gradually became less prominent and was increasingly replaced by theological categories drawn from Greek philosophy, Roman legal concepts, and ecclesiastical structures. Rather than emphasizing a reciprocal relationship in which believers entered into binding commitments with God, later Christian theology often placed greater emphasis on doctrines of divine essence, sacramental administration, and institutional authority. From a Latter-day Saint perspective, this shift represents one dimension of the Great Apostasy: not the complete disappearance of the Christian faith, but a gradual departure from the covenant-centered pattern found in scripture, in which God establishes relationships with His people through revealed promises, ordinances, and priesthood authority.<ref>Noel B. Reynolds, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/decline-covenant-early-christian-thought The Decline of Covenant in Early Christian Thought]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 295–324.</ref>

=====The Corruption of Scripture Guards the Way Back=====
In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi sees that the Bible originally went forth from the Jews in purity, containing the "fulness of the gospel" and many "plain and precious" truths. However, after it passed through the hands of a "great and abominable church," many of these plain and precious parts were removed before the Bible reached the Gentiles. As a result, many people stumbled spiritually, became confused about essential doctrines, and fell under the influence of false traditions. Nevertheless, Nephi also sees that God would not abandon humanity: He would bring forth additional scripture—most notably the Book of Mormon—to restore many of the lost truths, establish the truth of the Bible as far as it had been preserved, and help gather Israel and bring people to a knowledge of Jesus Christ and His gospel.

Nephi's vision varies in claiming that many plain and precious things are taken out of the Bible (1 Nephi 13:29) or taken out of the ''gospel'' (1 Nephi 13:26). Nephi also mentions "covenants" that have been taken away (1 Nephi 13:26). These plain and precious parts were taken away by "the great and abominable church" so "that they might pervert the right ways of the Lord, that they might blind the eyes and harden the hearts of the children of men (vv. 26–27). Here, we have a clear distinction between the ''perpetrators'' and their ''unfortunate victims'' whom they have blinded and whose hearts they have hardened against the true church.

The great and abominable church sought to "pervert the right ways of the Lord" (v. 27). The angel tells Nephi, "Behold the gold, and the silver, and the silks, and the scarlets, and the fine-twined linen, and the precious clothing, and the harlots, are the desires of this great and abominable church" (1 Nephi 13:8).

The most thorough treatment of this topic was done by Latter-day Saint scholar and Egyptologist John Gee in a book chapter he authored in 2005.<ref>John Gee, "[https://scripturecentral.org/archive/books/book-chapter/corruption-scripture-early-christianity The Corruption of Scripture in Early Christianity]," in ''Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasy'', ed. Noel B. Reynolds (FARMS, 2005), 163–204.</ref> According to Dr. Gee, "We neither need to nor should look later than the second century for [changes to the scriptures]. By the early second century, Christianity had fragmented into dozens of splinter groups, with each group charging that the other possessed both forged and corrupted texts."<ref>Gee, "Corruption of Scripture," 163–64.</ref>

Dr. Gee explains that various kinds of corruption can occur in the scriptures. These include:
# Omission
# Deletion
# Addition
# Alteration

But they can also include reinterpretation of scriptures, including the following:
# Presuppositional
# Grammatical
# Lexical

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
|+ style="color:#7BB375; font-weight:bold;" | Who Accused Whom of Altering Scripture?
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Accuser
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Accused
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Alleged alteration or corruption
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Source
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Martyr Justin Martyr]
| Jewish rulers / Jewish authorities
| Removed words from the Psalms, including the phrase “from the wood” from Psalm 96 (95 LXX).
| ''Dialogue with Trypho'' 73
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria]*
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpocrates Carpocrates] and the Carpocratians
| Corrupted a secret version of the Gospel of Mark by adding material and mixing false teachings into the text.
| ''Letter to Theodore''
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus Irenaeus]
| Valentinians
| Transferred passages, rearranged them, and adapted scriptural passages to support their theological system.
| ''Against Heresies'' 1.8.1
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion Marcion]
| Removed portions of Scripture, particularly from Luke, to make the text conform to his teachings.
| ''Against Marcion'' 4.2; ''Prescription Against Heretics'' 38
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| Valentinians
| Altered the meaning of Scripture by removing and adding material and imposing a different interpretation upon individual words.
| ''Prescription Against Heretics'' 38
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| A presbyter in Asia
| Forged writings that were falsely attributed to Paul.
| ''On Baptism'' 17
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus Irenaeus]
| Various Christian sects / “heretics”
| Accused them of corrupting Scripture; Irenaeus also acknowledged that these groups accused the emerging orthodox church of corrupting Scripture.
| ''Against Heresies'' 3.2.1
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius_of_Salamis Epiphanius of Salamis]†
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebion Ebion], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerinthus Cerinthus], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpocrates Carpocrates], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion Marcion]
| Corrupted the Gospel of Matthew.
| ''Panarion'' 30.13.1; 42.9.1–2
|-
| Opposing Christian sects
| The emerging orthodox / Catholic Christian group
| Altered Scripture and introduced false interpretations.
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian], ''Prescription Against Heretics'' 18
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufinus_of_Aquileia Rufinus of Aquileia]
| Earlier copyists / translators of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen Origen]
| Omitted or edited passages considered doctrinally corrupt and added material to clarify passages.
| Preface to Origen, ''On First Principles''
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion Marcion]
| The orthodox Christian tradition
| By implication, rejected or altered portions of the Christian scriptural tradition that he regarded as incompatible with his theology.
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]'s reports concerning Marcion
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinianism Valentinianism]
| The orthodox Christian tradition
| Accused the orthodox of adulterating Scripture and giving false interpretations, while maintaining that their own interpretation represented the truth.
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian], ''Prescription Against Heretics'' 18
|-
! colspan="4" | * Gee notes that the authenticity of the ''Letter to Theodore'' is uncertain. He therefore treats the accusation as evidence of an ancient claim, not as an independently verified historical fact. † Gee likewise cautions that Epiphanius is not necessarily a reliable source for these second-century figures.
|}

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
|+ style="color:#7BB375; font-weight:bold;" | What Motives Were Attributed to Those Who Altered Scripture?
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Accused
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Accuser / source
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Alleged motive
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | How the alteration served that motive
|-
| Individuals at Corinth
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Rome Clement of Rome]
| Pride, sedition, and desire for authority
| They set themselves up as leaders and attempted to usurp authority that did not belong to them.
|-
| Carpocratians
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria]*
| To justify their own immoral practices
| They allegedly altered the Gospel of Mark and incorporated false material from which they derived their doctrine.
|-
| Valentinians
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus Irenaeus]
| To give scriptural support to their preexisting theological system
| They adapted the sayings of Jesus, the prophets, and the apostles so that their teachings would appear to have scriptural support.
|-
| Valentinians
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus Irenaeus]
| To obtain intellectual respectability
| They attempted to harmonize Christian teachings with philosophical traditions and ideas current in the wider Greco-Roman intellectual world.
|-
| Author of ''Sophia of Jesus Christ''
| Gee's discussion of the text
| To give philosophical teachings the authority of Jesus
| Philosophical material from ''Eugnostos'' was placed, largely word for word, into the mouth of the risen Jesus.
|-
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion Marcion]
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| To make Scripture conform to Marcion's theological system
| Marcion removed portions of Scripture that did not fit his teachings, particularly from Luke.
|-
| Valentinians
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| To make Scripture conform to their theological system
| Rather than simply deleting passages, they allegedly changed the meaning of words and added interpretations that supported their doctrine.
|-
| Presbytery / presbyter in Asia
| [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian Tertullian]
| To legitimize women's teaching and baptizing
| The presbyter allegedly forged writings under Paul's name so that they would authorize practices Tertullian opposed.
|-
| Individuals seeking authority
| Gee's discussion of early accusations
| To obtain or consolidate religious authority
| Alteration or manipulation of texts could be used to give one's own teachings or leadership scriptural legitimacy.
|-
! colspan="4" | * Gee notes that the authenticity of the ''Letter to Theodore'' is uncertain. The table therefore reports the motive attributed in the source rather than presenting the allegation as established fact.
|}

=====The Great Splintering: The Groups that Formed in the Wake of the Great Apostasy=====
Further evidence for the Great Apostasy can be found in the writings of early Christian fathers (the study of which is known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristics patristics] or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristics patrology]) and Christian apocryphal writings.

When approaching these writings, it is important to keep their chronological context in mind. This helps in determining when the Great Apostasy might have been complete. Below is a series of tables that organize these writings chronologically and that can be viewed when desired.

====== Chronology of Early Christian Writings (A.D. 30–300) ======
This chronology includes the major surviving writings of early Christianity, including the New Testament, Apostolic Fathers, Church Fathers, apologetic works, church orders, martyr literature, biblical commentaries, Christian apocrypha, Christian pseudepigrapha, Gnostic literature, and important lost works.

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
!width="6.3%"| '''Approx. Date'''
!width="6.0%"|'''Author'''
!width="8.6%"|'''Work'''
!width="7.3%"|'''Genre'''
!width="8.3%"|'''Category'''
!width="9.3%"|'''Place of Composition'''
!width="7.3%"|'''Survival Status'''
!width="10.0%"|'''Principal Manuscript(s)'''
!width="8.3%"|'''Standard English Edition(s)'''
!width="14.6%"|'''Notes'''
|+'''Chronology of Early Christian Writings (AD 0–AD 300)'''
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 48–50
| Paul
| ''Epistle to the Galatians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Galatia or Antioch (disputed)
| Complete
| Codices Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus
| Nestle-Aland 28; Holmes; Loeb
| Earliest surviving Christian document, according to most scholars.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 50–51
| Paul
| ''First Epistle to the Thessalonians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Corinth
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus
| NA28; Holmes
| Earliest extant letter to a Christian congregation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 51–52
| Paul
| ''Second Epistle to the Thessalonians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Corinth (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Some scholars debate Pauline authorship

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 53–55
| Paul
| ''First Epistle to the Corinthians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Ephesus
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Addresses divisions, worship, resurrection, and ethics.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 55–56
| Paul
| ''Second Epistle to the Corinthians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Macedonia
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Collection of multiple Pauline letters according to many scholars.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 56–57
| Paul
| ''Epistle to the Romans''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Corinth
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Paul's longest and most systematic theological letter.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 60–62
| Paul
| ''Epistle to the Philippians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Prison epistle.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 60–62
| Paul
| ''Epistle to Philemon''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Shortest Pauline letter.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 60–62
| Paul (traditional)
| ''Epistle to the Colossians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Many scholars dispute Pauline authorship.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 60–62
| Paul (traditional)
| ''Epistle to the Ephesians''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Circular letter, according to many scholars.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 62–64
| Paul (traditional)
| ''First Epistle to Timothy''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Macedonia (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus
| NA28
| One of the Pastoral Epistles.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 62–64
| Paul (traditional)
| ''Epistle to Titus''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Macedonia or Nicopolis
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus
| NA28
| Pastoral Epistle.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 64–67
| Paul (traditional)
| ''Second Epistle to Timothy''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome
| Complete
| Sinaiticus
| NA28
| Traditionally regarded as Paul's final letter.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 65–70
| John Mark (traditional)
| ''Gospel according to Mark''
| Gospel
| New Testament
| Rome (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Earliest Canonical Gospel, according to the majority of scholars.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 70–90
| Anonymous
| ''Didache''
| Church Order
| Apostolic Fathers
| Syria (probably)
| Complete
| Codex Hierosolymitanus (1056)
| Holmes; Ehrman
| Earliest surviving Christian church manual.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 70–90
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel according to Matthew''
| Gospel
| New Testament
| Antioch? (traditional scholarly proposal)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Probably dependent upon Mark and other traditions.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–90
| Anonymous
| ''Epistle to the Hebrews''
| Homily / Epistle
| New Testament
| Unknown
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Anonymous in the earliest manuscripts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–90
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel according to Luke''
| Gospel
| New Testament
| Greece or Asia Minor (disputed)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| First volume of Luke–Acts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–90
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of the Apostles''
| History
| New Testament
| Greece or Asia Minor
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Second volume of Luke–Acts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–95
| Anonymous
| ''Epistle of James''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Palestine? (disputed)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Traditionally attributed to James, the brother of Jesus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–95
| Anonymous
| ''First Epistle of Peter''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Rome ("Babylon")
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Petrine authorship debated.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 80–100
| Clement of Rome
| ''First Epistle of Clement''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Rome
| Complete
| Codex Alexandrinus; Codex Hierosolymitanus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Earliest surviving post-apostolic Christian letter.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 85–95
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel according to John''
| Gospel
| New Testament
| Ephesus (traditional)
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Distinctive theological portrait of Jesus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 90–95
| Anonymous
| ''First Epistle of John''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Closely related to the Fourth Gospel.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 90–95
| Anonymous
| ''Second Epistle of John''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Shortest New Testament epistle by verse count.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 90–95
| Anonymous
| ''Third Epistle of John''
| Epistle
| New Testament
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Sinaiticus, Vaticanus
| NA28
| Personal letter concerning church leadership.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 90–96
| John of Patmos
| ''Revelation''
| Apocalypse
| New Testament
| Patmos
| Complete
| Sinaiticus; Alexandrinus
| NA28
| Earliest surviving Christian apocalypse in the canon.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 90–100
| Anonymous
| ''Odes of Solomon''
| Hymns
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Syria
| Complete
| Syriac manuscripts; Papyrus Bodmer XI (fragments)
| Charlesworth; Lattke
| Earliest substantial Christian hymn collection.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 95–120
| Anonymous
| ''Ascension of Isaiah'' (Christian recension)
| Apocalypse
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Syria or Palestine
| Complete
| Ethiopic manuscripts; Latin & Slavonic fragments
| Charlesworth; Knibb
| Composite work containing an early Christian vision of Christ's descent and ascent.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Ephesians''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus; later manuscripts
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| One of the seven authentic letters written while en route to martyrdom.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Magnesians''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Emphasizes unity under the bishop.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Trallians''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Warns against false teaching.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Romans''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Famous for Ignatius's desire for martyrdom.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Philadelphians''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Troas
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Encourages ecclesiastical unity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to the Smyrnaeans''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Troas
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Strong affirmation of Christ's true humanity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–110
| Ignatius of Antioch
| ''Epistle to Polycarp''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Troas
| Complete
| Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Personal letter to Polycarp of Smyrna.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–120
| Polycarp of Smyrna
| ''Epistle to the Philippians''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Codex Vaticanus Graecus 859; later manuscripts
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Frequently quotes New Testament writings.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–130
| Papias of Hierapolis
| ''Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord''
| Commentary
| Apostolic Fathers
| Hierapolis
| Fragmentary
| Preserved principally in Eusebius
| Holmes (fragments); Ehrman
| Earliest extant discussion of the origins of Matthew and Mark.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–130
| Anonymous
| ''Shepherd of Hermas''
| Apocalypse / Parable
| Apostolic Fathers
| Rome
| Complete
| Codex Sinaiticus; Codex Athous
| Holmes; Ehrman
| Highly regarded by many second-century Christians.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–130
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of the Hebrews''
| Gospel
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt or Syria
| Fragmentary
| Quotations in Jerome and others
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Used by some Jewish-Christian communities.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–130
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of the Nazarenes''
| Gospel
| Christian Apocrypha
| Syria
| Fragmentary
| Quotations in Jerome
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Closely related to Matthew.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 100–130
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of the Ebionites''
| Gospel Harmony
| Christian Apocrypha
| Transjordan or Syria
| Fragmentary
| Quotations in Epiphanius
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Omits the infancy narratives.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 110–135
| Anonymous
| ''Apocalypse of Peter''
| Apocalypse
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Partial (Greek); Complete (Ethiopic recension)
| Akhmim Codex; Ethiopic manuscripts
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Widely read in the second century and included in some early canon lists.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 110–140
| Anonymous
| ''Preaching of Peter'' (''Kerygma Petrou'')
| Apologetic Treatise
| Christian Apocrypha
| Alexandria (possibly)
| Fragmentary
| Clement of Alexandria and others
| Schneemelcher
| Survives only in quotations.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 120–135
| Anonymous
| ''Epistle of Barnabas''
| Epistle
| Apostolic Fathers
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Codex Sinaiticus
| Holmes; Lightfoot
| Presents an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 125–140
| Quadratus of Athens
| ''Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Athens
| Fragmentary
| Preserved in Eusebius
| Ehrman
| Earliest known Christian apology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 125–145
| Aristides of Athens
| ''Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Athens
| Complete
| Syriac manuscript; Armenian version
| ANF; Ehrman
| Addressed to Emperor Hadrian or Antoninus Pius.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 130–150
| Hegesippus
| ''Memoirs'' (''Hypomnemata'')
| Church History
| Patristic
| Probably Rome
| Fragmentary
| Preserved in Eusebius
| ANF (fragments)
| One of the earliest Christian historical works.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 135–150
| Anonymous
| ''Protoevangelium of James''
| Infancy Gospel
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt or Syria
| Complete
| Bodmer Papyrus V; numerous later manuscripts
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Principal source for later traditions concerning Mary's childhood.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 140
| Marcion
| ''Antitheses''
| Theological Treatise
| Heterodox
| Rome
| Lost
| Reconstructed from patristic quotations
| Harnack
| Contrasted the God of the Old Testament with the Father of Jesus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 140
| Marcion
| ''Evangelion'' (Marcion's Gospel)
| Gospel
| Heterodox
| Rome
| Reconstructed
| Patristic quotations
| Harnack; Roth
| Edited form of the Gospel of Luke according to the majority view.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 140–170
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of Mary''
| Dialogue Gospel
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Partial
| Berlin Codex; Rylands Papyrus 463
| Meyer; Elliott
| Centers on post-resurrection revelations to Mary Magdalene.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 140–180
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of Thomas''
| Sayings Gospel
| Christian Apocrypha
| Syria
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex II; Oxyrhynchus papyri
| Meyer; Patterson & Robinson
| Collection of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 140–180
| Valentinian school
| ''Gospel of Truth''
| Homily / Gospel
| Gnostic Literature
| Rome or Alexandria
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex I
| Meyer; Robinson
| Often attributed to Valentinus or one of his followers.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 140–180
| Valentinian school
| ''Gospel of Philip''
| Sacramental Treatise
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex II
| Meyer; Robinson
| Collection of mystical sayings concerning sacraments and union with Christ.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 145–160
| Justin Martyr
| ''First Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Falls
| Defense of Christianity addressed to Antoninus Pius.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 150
| Justin Martyr
| ''Second Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Falls
| Supplement to the ''First Apology''.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 150–160
| Justin Martyr
| ''Dialogue with Trypho''
| Dialogue
| Apologetic
| Ephesus or Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Falls
| Lengthy defense of Christianity against Jewish objections.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 145–170
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of John''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Partial
| Numerous Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Earliest of the major apocryphal Acts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 150–160
| Tatian
| ''Address to the Greeks''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Critique of Greek philosophy and culture.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 160–172
| Tatian
| ''Diatessaron''
| Gospel Harmony
| Gospel Harmony
| Syria
| Lost (reconstructed)
| Ephrem's Commentary; Arabic and Latin witnesses
| Petersen; Hill
| Earliest known harmony of the four canonical Gospels.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 165
| Melito of Sardis
| ''On Pascha''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Sardis
| Complete
| Papyrus Chester Beatty-Michigan
| Hall; ANF (partial)
| Earliest surviving Christian Paschal homily.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 165–180
| Melito of Sardis
| ''Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Sardis
| Fragmentary
| Eusebius
| Hall
| Addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 165–180
| Melito of Sardis
| ''Extracts'' (''Eklogai'')
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Sardis
| Fragmentary
| Catenae and patristic citations
| Hall
| Collection of scriptural interpretations.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 165–177
| Athenagoras of Athens
| ''Plea for the Christians''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Athens (probably)
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Defense of Christians addressed to Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 177
| Athenagoras of Athens
| ''On the Resurrection of the Dead''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Athens
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest full-length defense of bodily resurrection.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 169–183
| Theophilus of Antioch
| ''To Autolycus''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Antioch
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| First known Christian author to use the word "Trinity" (Trias).

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 170
| Anonymous
| ''Muratorian Fragment''
| Canon List
| Canonical Literature
| Rome
| Fragmentary
| Codex Ambrosianus
| Metzger
| Earliest surviving list of New Testament books.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 170–180
| Anonymous
| ''Letter of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Gaul
| Complete
| Preserved in Eusebius
| Musurillo
| Documents the persecution under Marcus Aurelius.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 177
| Anonymous
| ''Martyrdom of Pionius''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Traditional date disputed by some scholars.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 175–185
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Paul''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Partial
| Coptic, Greek, and Latin witnesses
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Includes the ''Acts of Paul and Thecla.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 175–190
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Paul and Thecla''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Numerous Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher
| Most popular section of the ''Acts of Paul.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 175–190
| Anonymous
| ''Third Epistle to the Corinthians''
| Epistle
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Armenian and Latin traditions
| Schneemelcher
| Incorporated into the ''Acts of Paul.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 175–190
| Anonymous
| ''Martyrdom of Paul''
| Martyr Account
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher
| Final section of the ''Acts of Paul.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 175–190
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Peter''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Rome
| Partial
| Vercelli Acts; Greek fragments
| Schneemelcher
| Contains the ''Quo Vadis'' episode.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Andrew''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Fragmentary
| Greek fragments; later recensions
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| One of the major apocryphal apostolic Acts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 178
| Celsus
| ''The True Doctrine''
| Polemic
| Pagan Critique
| Alexandria (probably)
| Lost (quoted extensively)
| Preserved by Origen
| Chadwick
| Most influential pagan critique of Christianity before Porphyry.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 180
| Irenaeus of Lyons
| ''Against Heresies''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Proto-orthodox
| Complete
| Latin manuscripts; Armenian fragments
| ANF; Rousseau & Doutreleau
| Principal refutation of second-century Gnosticism.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 180
| Irenaeus of Lyons
| ''Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching''
| Catechetical Treatise
| Patristic
| Lyons
| Complete
| Armenian manuscript
| Behr
| Summary of Christian doctrine.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 180–190
| Rhodo
| ''Against Marcion''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Rome
| Fragmentary
| Eusebius
| ANF (fragments)
| Disciple of Tatian.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 190
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Exhortation to the Greeks'' (''Protrepticus'')
| Apologetic Treatise
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Invitation for pagans to embrace Christianity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 190
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''The Instructor'' (''Paedagogus'')
| Moral Treatise
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Christian ethics and daily conduct.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 190–202
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Miscellanies'' (''Stromata'')
| Theological Miscellany
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| One of the most learned Christian works of the second century.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 190
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Commentary on Mark 10:17–31.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 197
| Tertullian
| ''Apology''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Greatest Latin apology of the early Church.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 197
| Tertullian
| ''To the Nations''
| Apology
| Apologetic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earlier companion to the ''Apology.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 197
| Tertullian
| ''On the Testimony of the Soul''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Appeals to natural knowledge of God.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 197–208
| Tertullian
| ''Against Marcion''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Five-book refutation of Marcionism.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 198
| Tertullian
| ''On Baptism''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest surviving treatise devoted entirely to baptism.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 198
| Tertullian
| ''On Prayer''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest substantial Christian commentary on the Lord's Prayer.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 199
| Tertullian
| ''On Repentance''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Important witness to early penitential practice.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Thomas''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Edessa
| Complete
| Syriac and Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| Famous for the "Hymn of the Pearl."

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Hymn of the Pearl''
| Hymn
| Christian Poetry
| Edessa
| Complete
| Embedded in the ''Acts of Thomas''
| Schneemelcher
| One of the masterpieces of early Syriac Christian literature.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of Judas''
| Dialogue Gospel
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Codex Tchacos
| Meyer; Kasser
| Presents Judas as the recipient of a secret revelation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Apocryphon of John''
| Revelation Dialogue
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codices II, III, IV; Berlin Codex
| Robinson; Meyer
| Foundational Gnostic text.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Hypostasis of the Archons''
| Treatise
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex II
| Robinson
| Interpretation of Genesis from a Gnostic perspective.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''The Thought of Norea''
| Revelation
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex IX
| Robinson
| Short revelation centered on Norea.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Thunder, Perfect Mind''
| Poetic Revelation
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex VI
| Robinson
| Famous poetic monologue spoken by a divine female figure.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Trimorphic Protennoia''
| Revelation
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex XIII
| Robinson
| Closely related to the ''Apocryphon of John.''

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Sophia of Jesus Christ''
| Dialogue
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex III; Berlin Codex
| Robinson
| Dialogue between the risen Christ and his disciples.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Tripartite Tractate''
| Theological Treatise
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex I
| Robinson
| One of the longest Valentinian theological works.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Interpretation of Knowledge''
| Treatise
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex XI
| Robinson
| Reflects mature Valentinian ecclesiology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Letter of Peter to Philip''
| Epistle
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex VIII
| Robinson
| Expanded apostolic revelation dialogue.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles''
| Acts
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex VI
| Robinson
| Symbolic missionary narrative.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 200–203
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Excerpts from Theodotus''
| Commentary
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Commentary preserving Valentinian traditions.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 200–203
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Eclogae Propheticae''
| Commentary
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Notes on biblical interpretation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 200–203
| Clement of Alexandria
| ''Quis Dives Salvetur?''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Interpretation of the Rich Young Ruler.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 200
| Minucius Felix
| ''Octavius''
| Dialogue
| Apologetic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest surviving Christian dialogue in Latin.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 200–206
| Tertullian
| ''On the Prescription of Heretics''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Argues apostolic succession determines authentic doctrine.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 202
| Tertullian
| ''Against Praxeas''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest extensive Latin defense of Trinitarian theology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 203
| Anonymous
| ''Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Carthage
| Complete
| Numerous Latin manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Includes Perpetua's own prison diary.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 203
| Tertullian
| ''To the Martyrs''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Encouragement for imprisoned confessors.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 203
| Tertullian
| ''On the Crown''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Discusses military service and Christian conscience.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 205
| Hippolytus of Rome
| ''Commentary on Daniel''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Rome
| Complete
| Greek and Slavonic witnesses
| ANF
| Earliest surviving complete Christian biblical commentary.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 205
| Hippolytus of Rome
| ''On Christ and Antichrist''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Rome
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| ANF
| Major early work of Christian eschatology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 205–215
| Hippolytus of Rome
| ''Apostolic Tradition''
| Church Order
| Church Order
| Rome
| Reconstructed
| Ethiopic, Latin, Arabic, Sahidic witnesses
| Stewart; Bradshaw
| Influential source for early liturgy and ordination rites.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 210–220
| Hippolytus of Rome
| ''Refutation of All Heresies''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Rome
| Complete
| Mount Athos manuscript
| ANF
| Valuable source for many otherwise-lost heresies.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 212
| Tertullian
| ''On the Resurrection of the Flesh''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Defense of bodily resurrection.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 213
| Tertullian
| ''On the Soul''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Early Christian anthropology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 215
| Origen
| ''Exhortation to Martyrdom''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Caesarea
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Greer
| Written during persecution.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 215
| Origen
| ''On Prayer''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Caesarea
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| Greer
| One of the finest early Christian works on prayer.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 220
| Origen
| ''On First Principles'' (''De Principiis'')
| Systematic Theology
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Partial
| Latin translation of Rufinus
| Butterworth
| First systematic theology in Christian history.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Commentary on John''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Alexandria
| Fragmentary
| Greek fragments; Latin translation by Rufinus
| ANF; Heine
| One of the earliest extensive Christian commentaries on the Fourth Gospel.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Commentary on Matthew''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Alexandria
| Fragmentary
| Greek fragments
| ANF; Scheck
| Important witness to early Gospel interpretation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Commentary on Romans''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Alexandria
| Partial
| Rufinus translation
| ANF
| Earliest surviving major commentary on Romans.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Commentary on Genesis''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Alexandria
| Fragmentary
| Patristic quotations
| Heine
| Demonstrates Origen's allegorical interpretation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Homilies on Genesis''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Partial
| Rufinus translation
| ANF
| Early example of Christian preaching on Scripture.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Homilies on Exodus''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Partial
| Rufinus translation
| ANF
| Develops typological readings of Exodus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Homilies on Leviticus''
| Homily
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Partial
| Rufinus translation
| ANF
| Influential on later sacramental theology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Origen of Alexandria
| ''Hexapla''
| Biblical Textual Criticism
| Biblical Scholarship
| Caesarea
| Fragmentary
| Fragments preserved in later writers
| Field; Nautin
| Monumental six-column edition of the Old Testament.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 220
| Julius Africanus
| ''Chronographiai''
| Chronology / History
| Patristic
| Palestine
| Fragmentary
| Preserved in Eusebius and later writers
| Wallraff
| One of the earliest Christian chronological histories.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 220
| Julius Africanus
| ''Letter to Aristides''
| Letter / Gospel Harmonization
| Patristic
| Palestine
| Fragmentary
| Preserved in Eusebius
| ANF
| Discusses apparent differences between Matthew and Luke.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–230
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Andrew''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Fragmentary
| Greek fragments; later recensions
| Schneemelcher; Elliott
| One of the major apocryphal apostolic Acts.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 220–240
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Peter and Andrew''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt or Asia Minor
| Fragmentary
| Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher
| Part of the broader Acts tradition.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Gospel of Bartholomew''
| Gospel / Revelation Dialogue
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Fragmentary
| Greek and Coptic manuscripts
| Elliott
| Contains dialogues between Christ and Bartholomew.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Questions of Bartholomew''
| Revelation Dialogue
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Fragmentary
| Greek and Coptic manuscripts
| Elliott
| Explores post-resurrection revelations.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Apocalypse of Adam''
| Apocalypse
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex V
| Robinson
| reinterpretation of salvation history.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Zostrianos''
| Revelation
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex VIII
| Robinson
| Long cosmological revelation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Allogenes''
| Revelation Dialogue
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex XI
| Robinson
| Describes ascent through heavenly realms.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 230
| Anonymous
| ''Marsanes''
| Revelation Treatise
| Gnostic Literature
| Egypt
| Complete
| Nag Hammadi Codex X
| Robinson
| Mystical cosmological work.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 235–240
| Novatian of Rome
| ''On the Trinity''
| Theological Treatise
| Patristic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest surviving Latin treatise devoted to the Trinity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 235–250
| Novatian of Rome
| ''On Jewish Foods''
| Treatise
| Biblical Interpretation
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Allegorical interpretation of Jewish dietary laws.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 235–250
| Novatian of Rome
| ''Letters''
| Letters
| Patristic
| Rome
| Fragmentary
| Cyprian and later writers
| ANF
| Important evidence for Roman church disputes.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 240–250
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''To Donatus''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Cyprian's conversion narrative.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 246
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''The Dress of Virgins''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Discusses Christian ascetic ideals.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 248
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''The Unity of the Church''
| Ecclesiology Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Major early statement on episcopal unity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 249
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''On the Lapsed''
| Pastoral Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Addresses Christians who sacrificed during persecution.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 249
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''On the Lord's Prayer''
| Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Early Latin commentary on the Lord's Prayer.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Didascalia Apostolorum''
| Church Order
| Church Order
| Syria
| Complete
| Syriac manuscripts
| Connolly; Funk
| Important source for third-century church practice.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| North Africa
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Earliest surviving Latin martyr act.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Martyrdom of Pionius''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Smyrna
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Describes persecution under Decius or earlier.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Testament of Jesus Christ''
| Church Order / Revelation
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Egypt
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Tübingen editions
| Presents apostolic instructions attributed to Jesus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Spain (traditional)
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Elliott
| Late apocryphal Acts tradition.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 250
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Philip''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Fragmentary
| Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher
| Contains extensive miracle narratives.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 250–251
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''Letters''
| Letters
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Diercks
| One of the most important collections of third-century Christian correspondence.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 250–251
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''To Demetrian''
| Apologetic Treatise
| Apologetic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Responds to pagan accusations that Christians caused disasters.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 251
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''On the Mortality''
| Pastoral Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Reflection on Christian responses to plague and death.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 251
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''On Works and Almsgiving''
| Moral Treatise
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Discusses charity and repentance.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 251–258
| Cyprian of Carthage
| ''Letters concerning the Novatian Schism''
| Ecclesiastical Letters
| Patristic
| Carthage
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF; Diercks
| Major evidence for early debates over church unity and restoration of the lapsed.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 251
| Novatian
| ''On the Jewish Foods''
| Biblical Treatise
| Patristic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Allegorical interpretation of Mosaic food laws.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 251
| Novatian
| ''On the Trinity''
| Theological Treatise
| Patristic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| One of the earliest Latin works defending Trinitarian theology.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 251
| Novatian
| ''On the Spectacles''
| Moral Treatise
| Patristic
| Rome
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Argues Christians should avoid pagan entertainment.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 251–260
| Dionysius of Alexandria
| ''Letters''
| Letters
| Patristic
| Alexandria
| Fragmentary
| Eusebius and later writers
| ANF
| Important witness to third-century theological controversies.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 252
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Cyprian''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Carthage
| Complete
| Latin manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Earliest surviving account of an African bishop's martyrdom.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 252–260
| Dionysius of Alexandria
| ''Against Nepos''
| Anti-millennialist Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Alexandria
| Fragmentary
| Eusebius
| ANF fragments
| Refutes excessive literal millennial interpretations.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 255
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Marianus and James''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| North Africa
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Important witness to persecution under Valerian.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 255
| Anonymous
| ''Passion of Montanus, Lucius, and Others''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| North Africa
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Describes Montanist-associated martyrs.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 255
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Euplus''
| Martyr Account
| Martyr Literature
| Sicily
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Musurillo
| Valerian persecution martyrdom account.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 260–270
| Gregory Thaumaturgus
| ''Address of Thanks to Origen''
| Oration
| Patristic
| Palestine
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| ANF
| Important account of Origen's teaching.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 260
| Gregory Thaumaturgus
| ''Canonical Letter''
| Ecclesiastical Letter
| Patristic
| Neocaesarea
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| ANF
| Early evidence of church disciplinary practice.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 260–280
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Peter and Paul''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor or Egypt
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Elliott
| Combines traditions concerning Peter and Paul.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270
| Victorinus of Pettau
| ''Commentary on Revelation''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Pannonia
| Complete
| Medieval manuscripts
| ANF
| Earliest surviving Latin commentary on Revelation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270
| Victorinus of Pettau
| ''Commentary on Genesis''
| Biblical Commentary
| Biblical Commentary
| Pannonia
| Fragmentary
| Patristic quotations
| ANF
| Early Latin biblical interpretation.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270
| Victorinus of Pettau
| ''Against the Heresies''
| Anti-heretical Treatise
| Anti-heretical
| Pannonia
| Lost
| Fragments only
| ANF
| One of the earliest Latin anti-heretical works.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270–280
| Methodius of Olympus
| ''Symposium''
| Dialogue
| Patristic
| Lycia
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| ANF
| Christian adaptation of Plato's ''Symposium'' focusing on virginity.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270–280
| Methodius of Olympus
| ''On Free Will''
| Theological Treatise
| Patristic
| Lycia
| Fragmentary
| Patristic quotations
| ANF
| Response to determinism.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 270–280
| Methodius of Olympus
| ''On the Resurrection''
| Theological Treatise
| Patristic
| Lycia
| Fragmentary
| Patristic quotations
| ANF
| Defense of bodily resurrection.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 280
| Anonymous
| ''Apostolic Church Order''
| Church Order
| Church Order
| Egypt or Syria
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Funk
| Early compilation of apostolic regulations.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 280
| Anonymous
| ''Pseudo-Clementine Homilies''
| Religious Romance / Dialogue
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Syria
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Rehm; Jones
| Presents Peter as defender of true Christianity against Simon Magus.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 280
| Anonymous
| ''Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions''
| Religious Romance / Dialogue
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Syria
| Complete
| Rufinus Latin translation
| Rehm; Jones
| Related to the ''Homilies'' but preserves different traditions.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 280–300
| Anonymous
| ''Apocalypse of Paul''
| Apocalypse
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Complete
| Numerous medieval manuscripts
| Elliott
| Influential vision of heaven and hell.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 280–300
| Anonymous
| ''Apocalypse of Thomas''
| Apocalypse
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Complete
| Latin manuscripts
| Elliott
| Eschatological revelations attributed to Thomas.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 290
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Philip'' (later sections)
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Asia Minor
| Fragmentary
| Greek manuscripts
| Schneemelcher
| Includes extensive miracle traditions.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 290
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of Andrew and Matthias''
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Fragmentary
| Greek manuscripts
| Elliott
| Late apostolic Acts tradition.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| 290–300
| Anonymous
| ''Life of Adam and Eve'' (Christian expansion)
| Adamic Literature
| Christian Pseudepigrapha
| Mediterranean
| Complete
| Numerous manuscripts
| Johnson
| Christian adaptation of Jewish Adam traditions.

|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| c. 300
| Anonymous
| ''Acts of the Apostles Peter and Paul'' (expanded form)
| Acts
| Christian Apocrypha
| Egypt
| Complete
| Greek manuscripts
| Elliott
| Expands traditions surrounding apostolic martyrdom.
|}

======The Movements Away from Apostolic Christiantiy======
Following the ministry of Jesus Christ and His Apostles, Christianity entered a period of increasing theological diversity. The New Testament itself anticipates this development, warning that false teachers, divisions, and apostasy would arise after the Apostles' ministry (Acts 20:29–30; 2 Thessalonians 2:3; 1 Timothy 4:1; 2 Peter 2:1–3). By the second century, Christians held a wide variety of views concerning the nature of Christ, the Godhead, salvation, Church authority, revelation, and the proper interpretation of scripture.

Although historians debate the precise boundaries of these movements, many can be understood as belonging to one of three broad trajectories.<ref>Bickmore, ''Restoring the Ancient Church'', 29–35.</ref>

#'''Jewish Christianity''' sought to preserve Christianity's continuity with Judaism by maintaining observance of the Mosaic Law and emphasizing Israel's covenantal identity.
#'''Gnostic Christianity''' interpreted Christianity through various philosophical and mystical systems that emphasized secret knowledge (''gnosis''), dualism between spirit and matter, and esoteric readings of scripture.
#'''Proto-Orthodox Christianity''' increasingly emphasized episcopal leadership, apostolic succession, and ecclesiastical unity as the means of preserving the apostolic faith. This latter tradition eventually developed into what became the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Not every movement fits neatly into one of these categories. Some, such as ''Montanism'', were reform movements that arose within proto-orthodox Christianity and emphasized continuing prophecy and revelation. Others, including ''Monarchianism'', ''Adoptionism'', ''Sabellianism'', and later ''Arianism'', were theological movements that developed within the broader Church as Christians debated the relationship between the Father and the Son. Still others, such as ''Manichaeism'', developed into distinct religions while borrowing elements from Christianity.

From a Latter-day Saint perspective, the proliferation of these movements is significant because it illustrates that, following the deaths of the Apostles, Christians increasingly disagreed over fundamental questions of doctrine and authority. Latter-day Saints generally understand these movements as sincere but competing attempts to preserve or explain Christianity after the loss of living apostolic leadership. This raises what Restoration theology regards as the central historical question: by what authority could disputes concerning doctrine and practice be definitively resolved once the Apostles were gone?

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:100%; font-size:85%; vertical-align:top;" border="3"
|+ '''Emergence and Decline of Major Christian Movements After the Apostolic Era'''
! width="15%" | '''Approx. Emergence'''
! width="17%" | '''Movement'''
! width="22%" | '''Broader Trajectory'''
! width="18%" | '''Approx. Decline/Disappearance'''
! width="28%" | '''Summary'''

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 30–50'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century '''Apostolic Christianity''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#eeeeee;" | '''Apostolic Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Late 1st–early 2nd century''' Continued through successor churches
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Ministry of Jesus Christ and the Apostles established the New Testament Church.
* Apostles and prophets provided priesthood authority, revelation, and doctrinal guidance.
* Represents the period before the emergence of later competing Christian traditions.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 40s–60s'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizers '''Judaizing Movement''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#FFFFCC;" | '''Jewish Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Late 1st century''' Related Jewish-Christian groups continued
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Mentioned throughout Acts and Paul's epistles.
* Taught that Gentile converts should observe circumcision and aspects of the Law of Moses.
* Reflected ongoing debates concerning Christianity's relationship to Judaism.
* The early Apostles decided that converts did ''not'' need to be circumcised in order to be Christians (Acts 15:19–29; 1 Corinthians 7:18–19)

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 50s–90s'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerinthus '''Cerinthian Christianity''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#FFFFCC;" | '''Jewish-Christian / Early Gnostic Transition'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''2nd century''' Little evidence after this period
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Associated with Cerinthus, a late first-century Christian teacher.
* Combined Jewish-Christian traditions with emerging speculative teachings about Christ.
* Believed that the material, visible world was not created by God, but by a being separate from Him.
* Denied the virgin birth of Jesus
* Taught that Jesus and Christ were separate beings, and that Christ descended upon Jesus at Jesus's Baptism in the form of a dove. After Jesus died, Christ ascended into heaven.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 70–100'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docetism '''Docetism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFCC;" | '''Gnostic Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''2nd–3rd centuries''' Continued in later Gnostic movements
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Taught that Christ only appeared to have a physical body.
* Denied or minimized the reality of Christ's suffering and mortal experience.
* Opposed by early Christian writers emphasizing Christ's true incarnation.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 70–135'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazarene_(sect) '''Nazarenes''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#FFFFCC;" | '''Jewish Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''4th–5th centuries'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Maintained Jewish practices while accepting Jesus as the Messiah.
* Generally held a higher view of Christ than later Ebionite groups.
* Represented one continuation of Jewish-Christian identity after the first century.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 70–135'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebionites '''Ebionites''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#FFFFCC;" | '''Jewish Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''4th–5th centuries'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Continued observance of the Mosaic Law.
* Viewed Jesus as the Messiah but often rejected His premortal divine status.
* Became increasingly distinct from Gentile Christianity after the destruction of Jerusalem.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 90–120'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity '''Proto-Orthodox Christianity''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Proto-Orthodox (Catholic) Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Did not disappear''' Became dominant Christian tradition
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Developed stronger episcopal leadership following the deaths of the Apostles.
* Emphasized bishops, apostolic succession, and the rule of faith.
* Became the tradition from which Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity developed.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 110–150'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilideans '''Basilidean Gnosticism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFCC;" | '''Gnostic Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''4th century'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Founded by Basilides in Alexandria.
* Developed elaborate cosmological systems involving divine emanations and spiritual realities.
* Emphasized salvation through higher knowledge.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''c. AD 140'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionism '''Marcionism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFCC;" | '''Gnostic-Influenced Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''4th–5th centuries'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Founded by Marcion after arriving in Rome.
* Rejected the Old Testament and distinguished the God of Israel from the Father of Jesus Christ.
* Produced one of the earliest attempts at a Christian canon.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 140–180'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinianism '''Valentinian Gnosticism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFCC;" | '''Gnostic Christianity'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Late 3rd–4th centuries'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Founded by Valentinus.
* Became one of the most influential Gnostic movements.
* Combined Christian teachings with complex philosophical and mystical interpretations.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''AD 150–200'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchianism '''Monarchianism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Internal Proto-Orthodox Debate'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''After 3rd-century Christological controversies'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Attempted to preserve strict monotheism while explaining Christ's relationship to the Father.
* Included Dynamic Monarchianism and Modalistic forms.
* Contributed to later debates concerning the nature of the Godhead.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''c. AD 170'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanism '''Montanism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Proto-Orthodox Renewal Movement'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''5th–6th centuries in some regions'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Began under Montanus in Phrygia.
* Emphasized continuing prophecy, revelation, and spiritual gifts.
* Reflected continued expectations of divine communication among early Christians.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Late 2nd century'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionism '''Adoptionism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Internal Proto-Orthodox Debate'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''3rd century''' Related ideas periodically reappeared
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Taught that Jesus became God's Son through adoption at a particular point in His mortal life.
* Challenged emerging teachings concerning Christ's eternal divine identity.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Early 3rd century'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabellianism '''Sabellianism (Modalism)''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Internal Proto-Orthodox Debate'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''After the 3rd century''' Related ideas continued
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Developed a systematic form of Modalistic Monarchianism.
* Taught that Father, Son, and Holy Ghost were different manifestations of one divine person.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''c. AD 240'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism '''Manichaeism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#E6CCFF;" | '''Independent Syncretic Movement'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Late Middle Ages'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Founded by Mani.
* Combined Christian, Persian, and other religious traditions.
* Emphasized cosmic dualism between light and darkness.

|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''c. AD 318'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianism '''Arianism''']
| style="vertical-align:top; background:#CCFFFF;" | '''Internal Proto-Orthodox Debate'''
| style="vertical-align:top;" | '''7th century''' Survived among some Germanic peoples
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
* Began with Arius in Alexandria.
* Taught that the Son was created by the Father and was not co-eternal with Him.
* Became the central controversy addressed at the Council of Nicaea (AD 325).

|}

=====The Loss of Spiritual Gifts=====
An often-neglected element of Latter-day Saint teaching regarding the Apostasy is the loss of spiritual gifts.<ref>Bickmore, ''Restoring the Ancient Church'', 36–40.</ref>

Mark records Jesus saying, "And these signs shall follow them that believe; In my name shall they cast out devils; they shall speak with new tongues; they shall take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them: they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall recover" (Mark 16:17–18). Paul presented even more gifts that should follow believers: "But the manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man to profit withal. For to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom; to another the word of knowledge by the same Spirit; to another faith by the same Spirit; to another the working of miracles; to another prophecy; to another discerning of spirits; to another divers kinds of tongues; to another the interpretation of tongues" (1 Corinthians 12:7&dash;10). When Jesus Christ comes, Paul tells us that "whether they be prophecies, they shall fail; whether there be tongues, they shall cease; whether there be nowledge, it shall vanish away. For we know in part, and we prophesy in part. But when that which is perfect [Christ] is come, then that which is in part shall be done away" (1 Corinthians 13:8–10). Given the world's lack of perfect knowledge and our lack of all divine revelation, these spiritual gifts must remain as enduring features of the true Church of Jesus Christ. They should remain until He returns again.

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
|+ style="caption-side:top; color:#7BB375; font-weight:bold;" | Comparison of Spiritual Gifts in the New Testament and Restoration Scriptures
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Gift / sign
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Mark 16:17–18
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | 1 Corinthians 12:8–11
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | Moroni 10:9–16
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | D&C 46:13–26
! style="background:white; color:#0E98BA; font-weight:bold;" | D&C 84:65–72
|-
! Word of wisdom
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Word of knowledge
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Faith
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Gifts of healing / heal the sick
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
|-
! Working of miracles / wonderful works
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔ (''"wonderful works"'')
|-
! Prophecy
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Discerning of spirits
| —
| ✔
| —
| ✔
| —
|-
! Tongues
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Interpretation of tongues
| —
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
| —
|-
! Cast out devils
| ✔
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
! Open blind eyes
| —
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
! Unstop deaf ears
| —
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
! Tongue of the dumb speak
| —
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
! Drink poison unharmed
| ✔
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
! Serpents not harm
| ✔
| —
| —
| —
| ✔
|-
| colspan="6" | '''Note:''' A check mark (✔) indicates that the gift or sign is explicitly mentioned or reasonably corresponds to the wording of the cited passage. A dash (—) indicates that the gift or sign is not listed in that passage.
|}
</wt>
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: Was the scope of the Apostasy only partial, or was it total?===
| state = closed
| content =
<wt>
Some Christians admit that there was an apostasy. Nevertheless, they claim that the Apostasy was not a "complete" or "total" apostasy. Rather, they claim that a faithful band of believers kept the faith and that, eventually, truth and unity overcame heresy and division.

=====The Catholic View=====
Catholicism does not accept the Latter-day Saint claim that there was a complete loss of Christ’s Church after the deaths of the apostles. Instead, the Catholic position is that the Church established by Christ has continued through apostolic succession—an unbroken transmission of authority from the Apostles through bishops to the present day.

Catholics generally do not argue that other Christian groups experienced a historical apostasy requiring restoration. Rather, they claim that the Catholic Church itself has preserved the essential authority, teachings, sacraments, and institutional structure of the original Church. Because of this, Catholic theology views later Christian communities that separated from Rome as lacking certain elements of apostolic continuity, particularly sacramental priesthood and apostolic succession.

A major distinction is therefore how Catholics and Latter-day Saints define apostasy:

*'''Latter-day Saint View:''' The Great Apostasy involved a loss of divine authority, priesthood keys, prophetic leadership, and certain truths from Christ’s original Church. The Restoration was necessary because the institutional Church no longer possessed the fullness of Christ’s authority.
*'''Catholic View:''' There was no universal apostasy of the Church because Christ promised that the Church would endure. Instead, there have been periods of sin, corruption, doctrinal disputes, and individual apostasy, but the Church’s essential authority and teachings remained intact through apostolic succession.

Catholic teaching does not claim that everything outside Catholicism is false. Catholic documents acknowledge that other religions and Christian communities may contain elements of truth and holiness. However, Catholic doctrine maintains that the fullness of the Church founded by Christ exists within the Catholic Church because it retains apostolic succession and the sacramental priesthood.

In short: The Catholic response to the Great Apostasy claim is not that Christianity never experienced corruption or decline, but that the Church itself never disappeared. Catholics believe Christ preserved His Church through the bishops and apostolic succession, whereas Latter-day Saints believe the loss of apostolic authority necessitated a Restoration through Joseph Smith.

=====The Reformed View=====
Protestant Reformers generally did not believe in a complete apostasy of Christianity, but they did believe that the visible Christian Church had undergone a serious corruption that required reform. Unlike the Latter-day Saint view, which teaches a loss of priesthood authority and the need for a Restoration, most Reformers argued that the true Church had continued to exist despite doctrinal and institutional errors.

Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin viewed the medieval Catholic Church as having departed from biblical Christianity in important ways. They criticized practices and teachings they believed were later developments, including issues involving papal authority, indulgences, church traditions, and certain doctrines. However, they generally did not conclude that God’s Church had vanished from the earth. Instead, they believed that the true Church had been preserved through Scripture and faithful believers, even if it was obscured by error.

A central distinction between the Reformation and Restoration perspectives is the question of continuity:

{| class="wikitable" vertical-align:top border="3" style="width:100%; font-size:85%"
|-
! width="20%"|'''View'''
! width="40%"|'''What happened after the apostles?'''
! width="40%"color:#0E98BA;" | '''Solution'''
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| '''Catholic view'''
| The Church continued through apostolic succession. Although individual Christians and leaders experienced sin, corruption, and doctrinal disputes, Christ preserved the Church’s essential authority, priesthood, sacraments, and teachings.
| Remain within and preserve the apostolic Church through its bishops, traditions, and sacramental structure.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| '''Protestant Reformation view'''
| The Church did not disappear, but many Reformers believed that significant doctrinal and institutional corruptions developed over time, especially within medieval Catholicism. The true faith was preserved among faithful believers and through Scripture.
| Reform the existing Church by returning to biblical teachings and correcting later traditions and practices.
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
| '''Latter-day Saint view'''
| A widespread apostasy occurred in which Christ’s Church lost priesthood authority, prophetic leadership, and the fullness of revealed truth, although individual believers and fragments of truth remained.
| Restore Christ’s original Church through the reestablishment of priesthood authority, revelation, ordinances, and the fullness of the gospel.
|}
Protestant reliance on Scripture contrasts with the Catholic emphasis on institutional continuity and apostolic succession. Reformers argued that the ultimate authority for correcting the Church was the Bible rather than the traditions or structures that had developed within medieval Christianity. They believed the Church could be restored to greater purity by returning to biblical teachings.

The Reformation view holds that Christianity experienced a significant falling away from original teachings and practices, particularly within medieval Catholicism, but not a complete apostasy in which Christ’s Church ceased to exist. Reformers believed God preserved the true faith through Scripture and faithful Christians, while Latter-day Saints argue that the loss of priesthood authority required a divine Restoration rather than merely a reform movement.

One Protestant attempted to support her view of the limited Apostasy as follows:

<blockquote>While the Mormon Church goes on to try to justify their reasons for rejecting the historic Christian faith by claiming that Christianity apostasized (fell away from the truth) after the death of the apostles, the Bible is clear that during the apostasy, only a few people would fall away from the faith. In 1 Timothy 4:1, the Bible says, “Not the Spirit speaketh expressly, that in the latter times, '''some shall depart''' from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits, and doctrines of devils.”<ref>Christina R. Darlington, ''Misguided by Mormonism But Redeemed by God’s Grace: Leaving the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints for Biblical Christianity'', 2nd ed. (n.p., 2019), 5. Emphasis in original.</ref></blockquote>

There are two problems with this analysis.<ref>Robert S. Boylan, "Refuting Christina Darlington on 1 Timothy 4:1 and LDS Belief in the Great Apostasy," ''Scriptural Mormonism'', August 17, 2019, https://scripturalmormonism.blogspot.com/2019/08/refuting-christina-darlington-on-1.html?m=1.</ref>

# Biblical scholars agree that this verse is more aptly applied to the ''end times'' rather than the near future, i.e., the Apostasy.<ref>I Howard Marshall and Philip H. Towner, ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles'' (International Critical Commentary; T&T Clark International, 2004), 537.</ref>
# The Greek word translated as "some," ''τινες'' (TEE-nehs), does not have the force of ''selecting a specific group''. Rather, it is an indefinite: "anyone."
</wt>
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: Why would God allow the Great Apostasy to happen?===
| state = closed
| content =
A common objection to the doctrine of the Great Apostasy is that if God knew His Church would fall into apostasy, why would He allow it to happen? Why would God permit centuries of confusion and the loss of priesthood authority, revelation, and ordinances? Latter-day Saint theology answers that God does not force humanity to accept truth. Because agency is essential to God’s plan, He allows individuals and communities to choose whether they will accept or reject the light He offers.

The scriptures repeatedly show that God permits His children to exercise agency, even when those choices lead to spiritual consequences. The Lord declared, “Behold, here is the agency of man, and here is the condemnation of man; because that which was from the beginning is plainly manifest unto them, and they receive not the light” (Doctrine and Covenants 93:31).

Likewise, the Book of Mormon teaches that God “gave unto them that they should be agents unto themselves” (Doctrine and Covenants 101:78; see also 2 Nephi 2:16). Without the possibility of rejecting truth, there could be no meaningful exercise of faith, obedience, or repentance.

The Bible itself describes periods in which God’s people fell away from revealed truth. Ancient Israel repeatedly experienced cycles of revelation, apostasy, judgment, and restoration. The book of Judges describes how “every man did that which was right in his own eyes” (Judges 21:25) after turning away from God’s covenant. The prophets repeatedly warned Israel that rejecting God’s word would lead to the loss of greater light: “Therefore my people are gone into captivity, because they have no knowledge” (Isaiah 5:13).

These patterns demonstrate that God allowing apostasy is not unique to Christianity’s history. Rather, it reflects a recurring pattern in which God honors human agency while continuing to prepare a way for restoration.

The New Testament anticipated that a falling away would occur after the time of Christ and His apostles. Paul warned the Ephesian elders: “For I know this, that after my departing shall grievous wolves enter in among you, not sparing the flock” (Acts 20:29).

These passages suggest that God did not allow the Apostasy because He was surprised by it. Rather, the scriptures indicate that God knew such a falling away would occur and prepared for its eventual restoration.

The Doctrine and Covenants uses the parable of the wheat and the tares to describe this process. The Lord explained that after the apostles died, the adversary would sow corruption among the followers of Christ: “After they have fallen asleep the great persecutor of the church, the apostate, the whore, even Babylon… soweth the tares” (Doctrine and Covenants 86:3).

However, this revelation also teaches that God preserved a faithful remnant and that the loss of the fulness of the gospel would not be permanent. The Lord declared that the wheat and the tares would grow together until the time of the harvest (Doctrine and Covenants 86:7–10). The purpose of the Restoration was therefore not to recover a completely extinguished faith, but to restore the fullness of the gospel and gather God’s covenant people in preparation for the final harvest.

The Great Apostasy also demonstrated the need for the Restoration. The loss of priesthood authority, prophetic revelation, and saving ordinances showed that Christ’s Church could not be maintained solely through human effort. The Restoration was therefore not merely a reform movement but a divine renewal of authority and covenant. As the Lord declared, “The works, and the designs, and the purposes of God cannot be frustrated, neither can they come to naught” (Doctrine and Covenants 3:1).

God’s purposes continued even during the Apostasy. Just as the Lord preserved a faithful remnant of Israel despite periods of rebellion, He preserved truth and prepared the way for the Restoration. The Book of Mormon teaches that the Lord’s work continues despite opposition: “He doeth not anything save it be for the benefit of the world; for he loveth the world” (2 Nephi 26:24).

Thus, the Great Apostasy was not a failure of God’s plan. It was a consequence of human agency, a fulfillment of scriptural prophecy, and part of the larger pattern of apostasy and restoration found throughout God’s dealings with His children. God allowed the loss of the fullness of the gospel because He permits His children to choose. Still, He also prepared from the beginning to restore the authority, covenants, and ordinances necessary for the salvation of all humanity.
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: Why did God wait until 1820 to inaugurate the Restoration?===
| state = closed
| content =
One of the most natural questions a person can ask about the Restoration is why it took so long. If the priesthood authority and many "plain and precious" truths were lost following the deaths of the Apostles, why would God wait nearly eighteen centuries before restoring them? Why not restore the gospel in the fourth century, the eighth century, or during the Protestant Reformation? Latter-day Saint doctrine does not provide a complete answer to those questions. The Lord has never revealed every reason for His timing. Nevertheless, scripture, history, and the teachings of modern prophets together suggest a compelling cumulative explanation. While they may not demonstrate that the Restoration ''had'' to occur in 1820, they help us understand why that moment in history was uniquely fitting.

The Restoration was not simply a correction of a few theological errors. It inaugurated what Latter-day Saints call the "dispensation of the fulness of times" (Ephesians 1:10; Doctrine and Covenants 128:18), the final dispensation before the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. God was not merely restoring doctrines. He was restoring priesthood authority, bringing forth new scripture, revealing temple ordinances, gathering Israel on both sides of the veil, and establishing a Church intended to endure until Christ's return. Such a work required more than a willing prophet. It required a world prepared to receive, preserve, and spread the Restoration. Throughout scripture, God often accomplishes His purposes by patiently preparing both people and circumstances over generations rather than by overriding history altogether. The Restoration appears to follow that same pattern.

History itself points toward the nineteenth century as an unusually favorable moment. For much of Christian history, governments treated religious dissent as both a theological and civil offense. New religious movements were often suppressed before they could take root. By Joseph Smith's day, however, the United States offered something unprecedented: constitutional protections for religious liberty, a population with high literacy rates, inexpensive printing, and a culture that encouraged religious inquiry. The Book of Mormon could be printed and distributed on a scale that would have been impossible centuries earlier. Missionaries could travel with increasing ease, and advances in communication and transportation would soon allow the restored gospel to spread throughout the world. The political, technological, and social conditions necessary for a permanent restoration had begun to converge.

Those developments did not emerge in isolation. From a Latter-day Saint perspective, centuries of Christian reform also helped prepare the way. Men and women such as John Wycliffe, William Tyndale, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Wesley challenged religious corruption, translated the scriptures into the language of ordinary people, emphasized personal engagement with the Bible, and encouraged believers to seek a purer form of Christianity. Although Latter-day Saints believe these reformers did not restore priesthood authority or the fullness of the gospel, they nevertheless helped create a world increasingly receptive to the idea that God might yet do more. In that sense, the Reformation was not the Restoration itself, but an important step toward it.

The Book of Mormon adds another dimension to this picture. In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi foresaw that many "plain and precious" truths would be removed from the gospel as it passed through history. Whether through deliberate corruption, sincere misunderstanding, or simply the accumulation of centuries of tradition, religious institutions naturally develop a powerful inertia. Once a particular way of reading scripture becomes deeply established, even faithful believers often find it difficult to imagine that foundational assumptions could be mistaken. The Restoration, therefore, required more than correcting isolated doctrines. It required someone willing to ask whether prevailing religious narratives themselves were incomplete. Joseph Smith's First Vision began with precisely that kind of question. Rather than asking which denomination was the best expression of Christianity, he sought to know which church God Himself recognized. His willingness to seek revelation rather than rely solely upon inherited tradition distinguished him from many of his contemporaries.

Latter-day Saints also believe that Joseph Smith was prepared for this work long before his birth. Scripture teaches that certain individuals were foreordained in the premortal life for sacred missions (Abraham 3:22–23), and Lehi identified Joseph Smith as the "choice seer" prophesied centuries earlier by Joseph of Egypt (2 Nephi 3). Although the reasons for Joseph's foreordination have not been fully revealed, it is reasonable within Latter-day Saint theology to conclude that he had demonstrated exceptional faithfulness before mortality and had been divinely prepared for this calling. His mortal life likewise displayed qualities the Restoration demanded: humility before God, openness to continuing revelation, remarkable resilience under persecution, and an extraordinary capacity to receive, organize, and teach new revelation. If God had spent centuries preparing the world for the Restoration, it is fitting that He would also prepare the prophet through whom that Restoration would come.

Taken together, these considerations form a persuasive cumulative case. God prepared nations through political and legal developments that protected religious liberty. He prepared societies through centuries of reform that rekindled a desire for scriptural truth. He prepared the world through advances in literacy, printing, communication, and transportation, enabling the restored gospel to endure and spread. He prepared a prophet who was foreordained, spiritually receptive, and willing to ask questions that others would not. Each consideration, standing alone, explains only part of the picture. Together, however, they paint a coherent portrait of divine providence unfolding over many centuries.

Even so, it is important not to claim more than the evidence allows. This cumulative case does not prove that 1820 was the ''only'' possible time for the Restoration or that Joseph Smith was the ''only'' person whom God could have called. Latter-day Saint scripture does not reveal every reason for God's choices, and finite beings should be cautious about claiming insight into every aspect of divine providence. The purpose of these arguments is not to demonstrate necessity but to show fittingness. They explain why the timing of the Restoration makes sense within the broader sweep of sacred history.

Ultimately, Christians already accept this kind of reasoning in many other contexts. Scripture says that Christ came "in the fulness of time" (Galatians 4:4), yet it does not explain why the Incarnation occurred in the first century rather than earlier or later. God waited centuries before delivering Israel from Egypt, generations before sending the Flood, and days before raising Lazarus. In each case, believers can identify reasons that illuminate God's timing without claiming to exhaust His purposes. The Restoration invites the same posture. Latter-day Saints can reasonably conclude that God inaugurated the Restoration when the world had been sufficiently prepared and through the prophet He had long prepared for that work. Beyond that, faith does not require complete knowledge of every divine reason. It requires confidence that the God who patiently guided history toward the Restoration knew precisely when its fullness of times had arrived.
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: Did God abandon the world during the Great Apostasy?===
| state = closed
| content =
A common objection to the doctrine of the Great Apostasy is that if the Church of Jesus Christ disappeared from the earth, then God must have left humanity without divine guidance for centuries. Latter-day Saint theology rejects this conclusion. The Apostasy describes the loss of the authorized Church and its fullness of ordinances, not the absence of God’s influence, inspiration, or concern for His children.

The scriptures teach that God’s light continues to reach all people. The Doctrine and Covenants teaches that “the Spirit giveth light to every man that cometh into the world” (Doctrine and Covenants 84:46), and the Gospel of John similarly states that Christ is “the true Light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world” (John 1:9). Even without the fulness of revealed truth, individuals could still receive inspiration, seek righteousness, and act according to the knowledge they possessed.

The Book of Mormon teaches that God remembers and works with His children even when they lack complete knowledge. Alma taught that God “imparteth his words unto the children of men, yea, over all the face of the earth” (Alma 29:8). Likewise, Nephi taught that God “loveth his children” and provides opportunities for them to receive truth according to His wisdom (1 Nephi 10:17).

The Great Apostasy was therefore not a period in which God withdrew His love or ceased His work among humanity. Rather, it was a period in which the authorized means for receiving the fullness of the gospel—such as priesthood authority, prophetic revelation, and saving ordinances—were no longer fully available on the earth. God continued to guide individuals through conscience, inspiration, scripture, and the light of Christ as He prepared the way for the Restoration.

The Restoration of the gospel through Joseph Smith was not a correction to a period of divine abandonment, but the continuation of God’s ongoing work to bless His children. Through the Restoration, God restored the authority, covenants, and ordinances necessary to bring the fullness of the gospel back to the earth and extend its blessings to all people.
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: What is the fate of those that lived during the Great Apostasy?===
| state = closed
| content =
A common objection to the doctrine of the Great Apostasy is that if the fulness of the gospel and priesthood authority were lost from the earth, many people must have lived and died without access to essential truths and ordinances. Latter-day Saint doctrine teaches that God’s plan accounts for this circumstance through the preaching of the gospel to the dead and the performance of ordinances on their behalf.

The Book of Mormon teaches that individuals are not condemned for lacking a law or knowledge they never received: “Where there is no law given there is no punishment; and where there is no punishment there is no condemnation” (2 Nephi 9:25). Similarly, Doctrine and Covenants 137:7 teaches that “all who have died without a knowledge of this gospel, who would have received it if they had been permitted to tarry, shall be heirs of the celestial kingdom of God.”

The New Testament teaches that the gospel is preached to those who have died: “For for this cause was the gospel preached also to them that are dead” (1 Peter 4:6). Modern revelation further explains that those who did not receive the gospel during mortality have the opportunity to accept it in the spirit world and receive its blessings through obedience to the ordinances of God’s house (Doctrine and Covenants 138:58).

The Great Apostasy refers to the loss of priesthood authority, revelation, and the fullness of gospel ordinances from the earth; it does not mean that God abandoned His children or that God personally rejected every person who lived during that period. Individuals could still receive light, follow Christ according to the understanding available to them, and be judged according to their faithfulness.

The Restoration restored the ordinances and authority necessary for the salvation of all God’s children, including those who lived during periods when the fullness of the gospel was unavailable. Through Christ’s Atonement, missionary work in the spirit world, and temple ordinances performed on behalf of the dead, God provides every person with a fair opportunity to accept or reject the gospel.
}}
{{CollapseHeaders
| title = ===Question: Did Joseph Smith even intend to restore a church?===
| state = closed
| content =
Some Latter-day Saint scholars today doubt that Joseph Smith intended to restore the Church of Jesus Christ. The reasons for their doubt are not entirely clear, but they have encouraged Church members to rethink their use of the term.

Latter-day Saint scholar Patrick Q. Mason, in his book ''Restoration: God's Call to the 21st-Century World'' (2020), notes that the term ''restored church'' does not appear in the Latter-day Saint canon of scripture.<ref>Patrick Q. Mason, ''Restoration: God's Call to the 21st-Century World'' (Faith Matters, 2020), 11–37.</ref> Latter-day Saint scholar Jason R. Combs explains, "When Latter-day Saints use that unscriptural phrase, ''restored church'', it should be understood as shorthand for the ''restorations'' the Doctrine and Covennats does address—namely, the bestowal of priesthood power, authority, and keys associated with making sacred covenants, establishing Zion (Moses 7:18), gathering scattered Israel on both sides of the veil (that is, in this life and beyond), and binding up all dispensations in preparation for the Second Coming of Jesus Christ."<ref>Jason R. Combs, "Introduction: Understanding Ancient Christians, Apostasy, and Restoration," in ''Ancient Christians: An Introduction for Latter-day Saints'' ed. Jason R. Combs, Mark D. Ellison, Catherine Gines Taylor, and Kristian S. Heal (Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2022), 10.</ref> Combs also takes time to emphasize that the term ''great apostasy'' does not appear in the Latter-day Saint canon.<ref>Combs, "Introduction," 10.</ref>

Combs says, "Moreover, the Lord could also say very positive things about ministers from other Christian churches (see Doctrine and Covenants 35:3–4; 39:7–8), and the Lord could speak of his [sic] 'church' already existing at the time that The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was being established (see Doctrine and Covenants 5:14; 10:52–56, 67–69)."<ref>Combs, "Introduction," 11.</ref>

Again, it is not entirely clear what motivation these scholars have for making this claim. Whatever their motivations are, it is clear that their claims cannot be sustained. In a famous canonized statement, God the Father told Joseph Smith that all the creeds of the denominations that existed at that time were an "abomination" (Joseph Smith-History 1:18–19).<ref>John W. Welch, “[https://rsc.byu.edu/prelude-restoration/all-their-creeds-were-abomination ‘All Their Creeds Were an Abomination’: A Brief Look at Creeds as Part of the Apostasy],” in ''Prelude to the Restoration: From Apostasy to the Restored Church'' (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University and Deseret Book, 2004), 228–49.</ref> Joseph Smith restored priesthood keys. He revealed that people who were baptized in another church could not count those baptisms as valid, and had to be rebaptized into the Lord's Church (Doctrine and Covenants 22). The Book of Mormon calls any other system that does not subscribe to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, as revealed in the Book of Mormon, part of the church of the devil or the great and abominable church.
}}
{{endnotes sources}}