The Great Apostasy

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The Great Apostasy

Summary: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claims that it is the restored Church of Jesus Christ. Fundamental to that belief is that the Church was lost for a time. Without such a loss, there could have been no Restoration. Critics, and especially those who are of Protestant, Orthodox, or Catholic Christian background, have argued that the Latter-day Saint belief in the Great Apostasy is erroneous on many grounds. Some have argued that Christ never established an official institution during His mortal life. Others have argued that He did found a church, but that the church was never lost.

Regardless of the criticism, it is a valuable exercise for Latter-day Saints to consider the historical, scriptural, and theological grounding for their belief in the Great Apostasy. While some aspects of this belief lie beyond the ken of academics, Latter-day Saint belief is not contradicted by existing historical or scriptural evidence.

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New Approaches to the Apostasy

In recent years, there has been a growing strain of Latter-day Saint scholars who have called for new approaches to the Apostasy. Some are concerned that traditional approaches—which have emphasized a dark pall of intellectual and spiritual rot that essentially covered all people from the death of the last Apostles to Joseph Smith's First Vision—are neither "pastorally productive," nor "intellectually defensible."

Defining the Apostasy

Defining what the Apostasy actually was is a matter of great importance. Without this definition, we cannot assuage the concerns of those studying this topic. It is important to define the Apostasy using scripture.

The word apostasy comes from the Greek word ἀποστασία (ah-poh-stah-SEE-uh). The prefix ἀπο means "away", and στασίs means "standing." Thus, etymologically, we get "standing away" or "standing apart" as the meaning of the word. "The word means ‘rebellion,’ ‘mutiny,’ ‘revolt,’ or ‘revolution,’ and it is used in ancient contexts with reference to uprisings against established authority."

In 2 Thessalonians, the apostle Paul said, "Let no man deceive you by any means: for [the Second Coming of Jesus Christ] shall not come, except there come a falling away ["ἀποστασία"] first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition" (2 Thessalonians 2:3).

Thus, in contrast to some who believe that external persecution was a primary cause of the Great Apostasy, the New Testament and other passages of scripture actually place internal rebellion as its primary cause. As we shall see, however, external persecution still played a role.

Mass internal rebellion is the primary cause and central, defining feature of the Great Apostasy, but rebellion against what? Ultimately, it was a rebellion against key, essential doctrines taught by Christ and His Apostles. When we talk about someone who is an "apostate" or "apostatizes" from the Church today, we are usually referring to someone who is openly rebelling against the Church and its authority. This is the best way to make sense of the Great Apostasy.

Some have conceptualized the loss of priesthood authority, the changing of ordinances, and the corruption of scripture as part of the definition of the Great Apostasy. However, these are merely symptoms of the internal rebellion against key, essential doctrines of the Gospel of Jesus Christ as taught by His Apostles. The rebellion against these doctrines led to the creation of many different Christian groups, each of which did not fully align with New Testament teachings on how Christ's Church should be run and what its members should believe. The creators of these sects thus become the perpetrators of the Great Apostasy, and other Christians who belonged to these churches became the unfortunate and unwitting inheritors or victims of it.

The Establishment of Christ's Church

If Christ's official, institutional Church was lost, then it must have been established. However, many today doubt that Christ ever established such a church.

The word that Greek uses to describe such a church is "ἐκκλησία" (eh-clay-SEE-ah). In the Gospel of Matthew, after Christ praises Peter for receiving his testimony of Christ from heaven, Christ says, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church [ἐκκλησίαν]; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it" (Matthew 16:18, emphasis added). This is one of the most explicit pieces of evidence in the New Testament that Christ meant to establish a church. In the next verse, Christ says, "And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:19). What does the language of "binding" and "loosing" refer to? Protestant scholars assure us that this refers to the power of the Apostles to permit and ban various forms of behavior among the covenant people. Matthew 18:18 confirms that all of the Twelve had this authority. This was the authority to establish doctrine for the Church (Acts 2:42). This authority is evident from the fact that one of the criteria for including a book in the New Testament canon was apostolicity—that is, the characteristic of having been written by an apostle. The Apostles were also given power ("δύναμις" [DOO-nah-mees]) and authority ("ἐξουσία" [ex-oo-SEE-ah]) to cast out all devils (Matthew 10:1) and to cure diseases (Luke 9:1).

However, do the lone mentions of an "ἐκκλησία" in Matthew 16 and 18 establish that Christ meant to establish a church? Lothar Coenen expresses doubt in The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology that the uses of "ἐκκλησία" in the passages from Matthew 16 and 18 can be used to support the notion that Christ established an official, institutional church. They are indeed the only times in all the Gospels that "ἐκκλησία" is used. "In all probability," Coenen writes, "Jesus himself called together the Twelve, but did not found the 'ekklesia' as such in his own lifetime, not even through the institution of the Lord's Supper." However, "This by itself would not settle the question whether he intended the church to come into being." This should not threaten Latter-day Saint belief. If Jesus at the very least came, taught His people, won them as followers, performed His Atonement, and gave His Apostles both authority to baptize and a commission to baptize His followers after His Ascension, the essential Latter-day Saint belief that Christ established a church is preserved.

New Testament data outside the Gospels obviously support the idea of an institutional church having been organized. Acts 2:37–47 describes believers (a) being baptized into the church, and (b) united by their common belief in apostolic teaching. In both disputed and undisputed Pauline writings, we get the same pattern of officers with authority and followers united by common belief in practice. Ernest Best notes how "[m]inistry in the church is described both in general terms (1 Thess. 5:12; Heb 13:7) and with a variety of more specific titles (e.g. deacons, 1 Tim. 3:8-13; bishops, 3:1-7; elders, 4:17-20...pastors, Eph. 4:11; and prophets, 1 Cor. 12:4-11) and their ministry was a gift from God (Rom. 12:4-8; Eph. 4:7-11)." Paul's letters obviously describe real geographic locations where the Church had been established and where Paul had performed ministry.

In short, "Christ had followers, leaders, and rules. That certainly constitutes an organization."

Was There a Unified Platform to Apostatize From?

Another question that has been raised is whether there was a unified church to apostatize from. Did the Church have any authoritative beliefs that all believers were bound to uphold? This question has been raised even by defenders of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Former BYU professors and Latter-day Saint apologists Daniel C. Peterson and Stephen D. Ricks wrote:

Terms like "orthodoxy" and "heresy" seem increasingly—to modern objective scholarship—to be mere self-congratulatory epithets worked up by the victors in the dogmatic skirmishes of Christian history. In earliest Christianity, the two are often impossible to distinguish, at least without the benefit of hindsight. In many areas, the "heretics" were the established church, while the "orthodox" were the damnable minority. And this is not the case in later, "apostate" centuries. The New Testament itself contains conflicting perspectives and positions that, many scholars would contend, resist even the most determined harmonizer.

This raises the obvious question: From what, then, did the earliest Christians apostatize from?

The answer may be something like this: there may be a subset of beliefs that had become binding on early Christians. On other issues, the New Testament and other early documents may have differed because no binding belief yet existed.

The Apostasy Predicted

Latter-day Saints have appealed to a variety of scriptures to support their belief in the Great Apostasy. Some of these scriptures are better to use than others. Some do not give good evidence to support belief in the Great Apostasy.

One scripture frequently used is Amos 8:11. It says, "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord."

The most extensive evidence of an apostasy is found in the New Testament.

New Testament Prophecies of the Demise of Christ’s Church

• Matthew 13:24–30
• Matthew 24:5, 24
• Acts 20:29-30
• Romans 11:19–21
• 2 Thessalonians 2:3–4
• 1 Timothy 4:1–3
• 2 Timothy 3:1–9, 12; 4:3–4
• 2 Peter 2:1–3
• Revelation 13:7

Evidences of First-Century Apostasy from the New Testament

• John 6:66
• Romans 1:8–32
• Romans 2:17–24
• Romans 16:17–18
• 1 Corinthians 1:11–12; 3:4
• 1 Corinthians 4:18
• 1 Corinthians 5:1, 6
• 1 Corinthians 10:14
• 1 Corinthians 11:18–11, 29–30, 34
• 1 Corinthians 14:1–37
• 2 Corinthians 3:1; 72
• 2 Corinthians 6:14–17
• 2 Corinthians 11:3–4, 12–15
• Galatians 1:6–9; 3:1
• Galatians 4:8–11; 5:7, 15–22
• Ephesians 4:1–5:21
• Colossians 2:8–9, 18
• 2 Thessalonians 2:7–9
• 2 Thessalonians 3:6
• 1 Timothy 1:3–4, 6–7, 19–20
• 1 Timothy 5:15
• 1 Timothy 6:1–10
• 1 Timothy 6:20–21
• 2 Timothy 1:8–18; 2:16–18; 4:14–17
• Titus 1:10–14
• Titus 2:1–15
• Titus 3:9–11
• James 1–2
• James 4:1–8
• 2 Peter 2:1–22; 3:16–18
• 1 John 2:9–27; 4:1
• 3 John 1:9–10
• Jude 1:3–19
• Revelations 2–3

Teeing the Ball Up: The Loss of Apostolic Authority

Doctrine and Covenants 86 presents the Apostles as the original sowers of the gospel in the Savior's Parable of the Wheat and the Tares. According to the revelation, they planted the "good seed," but after they "fell asleep" (that is, after their deaths), the adversary sowed tares among the wheat, symbolizing the introduction of corruption and false teachings into the Church (Doctrine & Covenants 86:1–3). Unlike some earlier Latter-day Saint interpretations that suggested the wheat disappeared entirely, this revelation teaches that the wheat continued to exist alongside the tares until the last days, when the Lord would begin the work of gathering and separating them. Thus, Doctrine and Covenants 86 portrays the Apostles as faithfully establishing Christ's Church and attributes the subsequent Apostasy to the enemy's efforts after their ministry ended, while emphasizing that God preserved faithful believers ("the wheat") until the Restoration and the final gathering.

The Fate of the Apostles

The best historical scholarship available places the death of the last Apostle as early 100 AD and as late as 107 AD.

The Fate of the Apostles

Apostle	Location	Killed By	Reason	Manner	Source	Date	Historical Likelihood
Peter	Rome, Italy	Roman authorities under Emperor Nero	Preaching Christ during the Roman persecution of Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in (c. AD 64–67).	Crucified	Tradition	64–68 AD	Moderate-High
Andrew	Patras, Greece	Roman governor of Achaia	Refused to stop preaching Christianity.	Crucified	Tradition	60 AD	Low-Moderate
James G	Jerusalem	Herod Agrippa	To please certain Jewish leaders who opposed the Christian movement (Acts 12:1–2).	Beheaded	Acts 12	44 AD	High
John	Ephesus	None	Exiled to Patmos under Roman authority for preaching the Gospel (Revelation 1:9).	Natural	Tradition	100 AD	Moderate
Philip	Hierapolis	Local authorities in Phrygia	Converted prominent individuals and challenged paganism.	Crucified	Apocrypha	80 AD	Low
Bartholomew	Armenia	Armenian or local pagan rulers	Converted members of the royal family to Christianity.	Flayed	Tradition	69–71 AD	Low
Thomas	Chennai, India	Local rulers in India	Converted many people, including members of the nobility.	Speared	Tradition	72 AD	Moderate
Matthew	Ethiopia	Local rulers	Refused to stop teaching and converting people.	Natural or Stabbed	Legend	68 AD	Low
James L	Jerusalem	Jewish religious leaders	Preached that Jesus was the Messiah	Stoned	Josephus	62 AD	Low
Jude	Persia/Beirut	Local authorities in Persia	Missionary activities and conversions	Beaten/Axed	Apocrypha	65 AD	Low
Simon	Persia	Persian or Roman authorities	Preaching Christianity	Sawn	Tradition	65–107 AD	Low
Judas	Jerusalem	Himself	After betraying Jesus, he died in remorse (Matthew 27:3–5; Acts 1:18–19 describes the aftermath differently).	Suicide	Math. 27 / Acts 1	AD 30–33	High
Matthias	Jerusalem or Colchis	Jewish religious authorities	For preaching Christ as the Messiah	Stoned or Crucified	Tradition	80 AD	Moderate

The Key Doctrines

As mentioned before, the Apostasy was the result of key doctrines being rebelled against. Below, we explore some of the possibilities.

An Embodied God

By the 2nd century, Christians were teaching that God created the universe out of nothing. As observed by James Hubler,

Creatio ex nihilo appeared suddenly in the latter half of the second century c.e. Not only did creatio ex nihilo lack precedent, it stood in firm opposition to all the philosophical schools of the Greco-Roman world. As we have seen, the doctrine was not forced upon the Christian community by their revealed tradition, either in Biblical texts or the Early Jewish interpretation of them. As we will also see it was not a position attested in the New Testament doctrine or even sub-apostolic writings. It was a position taken by the apologists of the late second century, Tatian and Theophilus, and developed by various ecclesiastical writers thereafter, by Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen. Creatio ex nihilo represents an innovation in the interpretive traditions of revelation and cannot be explained merely as a continuation of tradition.

Tatian and Theophilus died by AD 185. Irenaeus (191 AD), Origen (253 AD), and Tertullian (220 AD) all died by the third century AD. This doctrine they taught contravened the Bible. John 17:3 teaches, “And this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent.” By not knowing the true God, the Christians certainly fell into apostasy.

Other "Plain and Precious" Truths Lost

• Three Degrees of Glory
• Baptism for the dead
• Faith and works

The Change of Covenants

Nephi mentions "covenants" that were taken out of the Bible. What could these covenants refer to?

BYU professors Nicolas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer argue that the Book of Mormon presents the Great Apostasy primarily as the rise of replacement theology—the belief that the Christian Church permanently replaced Israel as God's covenant people. They contend that the Book of Mormon emphasizes a remnant theology, teaching that God's covenants with Israel remain in force and that Gentiles are invited to be grafted into those covenants rather than supplant Israel. They build this case primarily from 1 Nephi 13, arguing that the "plain and precious things" removed from the Bible largely concerned God's enduring covenant with Israel and its future gathering. They reinforce this interpretation with 2 Nephi 25–30, Jacob 5, 3 Nephi 16, 20, and 21, and Mormon 5, all of which emphasize Israel's eventual restoration and the centrality of the gathering of Israel in the last days. They also appeal to Romans 9–11, particularly Paul's olive tree analogy, along with the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 12 and Isaiah's prophecies of Israel's restoration, to argue that both the Bible and the Book of Mormon teach that Gentile Christians become part of Israel's covenant family rather than replacing it. In their view, the Restoration restores this covenant-centered understanding of God's work, making the gathering of Israel—not merely the reestablishment of ecclesiastical authority—the defining answer to the Great Apostasy.

Cherubim and a Flaming Sword: The Corruption of Scripture Guarding the Way Back from the Apostasy

In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi sees that the Bible originally went forth from the Jews in purity, containing the "fulness of the gospel" and many "plain and precious" truths. However, after it passed through the hands of a "great and abominable church," many of these plain and precious parts were removed before the Bible reached the Gentiles. As a result, many people stumbled spiritually, became confused about essential doctrines, and fell under the influence of false traditions. Nevertheless, Nephi also sees that God would not abandon humanity: He would bring forth additional scripture—most notably the Book of Mormon—to restore many of the lost truths, establish the truth of the Bible as far as it had been preserved, and help gather Israel and bring people to a knowledge of Jesus Christ and His gospel.

Nephi's vision varies in claiming that many plain and precious things are taken out of the Bible (1 Nephi 13:29) or taken out of the gospel (1 Nephi 13:26). Nephi also mentions "covenants" that have been taken away (1 Nephi 13:26). These plain and precious parts were taken away by "the great and abominable church" so "that they might pervert the right ways of the Lord, that they might blind the eyes and harden the hearts of the children of men (vv. 26–27). Here, we have a clear distinction between the perpetrators and their unfortunate victims whom they have blinded and whose hearts they have hardened against the true church.

The great and abominable church sought to "pervert the right ways of the Lord" (v. 27). The angel tells Nephi, "Behold the gold, and the silver, and the silks, and the scarlets, and the fine-twined linen, and the precious clothing, and the harlots, are the desires of this great and abominable church" (1 Nephi 13:8).

The most thorough treatment of this topic was done by Latter-day Saint scholar and Egyptologist John Gee in a book chapter he authored in 2005.

The Great Splintering: Patristic and Historical Evidence for the Apostasy

Further evidence for the Great Apostasy can be found in the writings of early Christian fathers (the study of which is known as patristics or patrology) and Christian apocryphal writings.

When approaching these writings, it is important to keep their chronological context in mind. This helps in determining when the Great Apostasy might have been complete. Below is a series of tables that organize these writings chronologically and that can be viewed when desired.

Chronology of Early Christian Writings (A.D. 30–300)

This chronology includes the major surviving writings of early Christianity, including the New Testament, Apostolic Fathers, Church Fathers, apologetic works, church orders, martyr literature, biblical commentaries, Christian apocrypha, Christian pseudepigrapha, Gnostic literature, and important lost works.

Chronology of Early Christian Writings (AD 0–AD 300)

Approx. Date	Author	Work	Genre	Category	Place of Composition	Survival Status	Principal Manuscript(s)	Standard English Edition(s)	Notes
48–50	Paul	Epistle to the Galatians	Epistle	New Testament	Galatia or Antioch (disputed)	Complete	Codices Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus	Nestle-Aland 28; Holmes; Loeb	Earliest surviving Christian document according to most scholars.
50–51	Paul	First Epistle to the Thessalonians	Epistle	New Testament	Corinth	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus	NA28; Holmes	Earliest extant letter to a Christian congregation.
51–52	Paul	Second Epistle to the Thessalonians	Epistle	New Testament	Corinth (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Pauline authorship debated by some scholars.
53–55	Paul	First Epistle to the Corinthians	Epistle	New Testament	Ephesus	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Addresses divisions, worship, resurrection, and ethics.
55–56	Paul	Second Epistle to the Corinthians	Epistle	New Testament	Macedonia	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Collection of multiple Pauline letters according to many scholars.
56–57	Paul	Epistle to the Romans	Epistle	New Testament	Corinth	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Paul's longest and most systematic theological letter.
60–62	Paul	Epistle to the Philippians	Epistle	New Testament	Rome (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Prison epistle.
60–62	Paul	Epistle to Philemon	Epistle	New Testament	Rome (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Shortest Pauline letter.
60–62	Paul (traditional)	Epistle to the Colossians	Epistle	New Testament	Rome	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Pauline authorship disputed by many scholars.
60–62	Paul (traditional)	Epistle to the Ephesians	Epistle	New Testament	Rome	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Circular letter according to many scholars.
62–64	Paul (traditional)	First Epistle to Timothy	Epistle	New Testament	Macedonia (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus	NA28	One of the Pastoral Epistles.
62–64	Paul (traditional)	Epistle to Titus	Epistle	New Testament	Macedonia or Nicopolis	Complete	Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus	NA28	Pastoral Epistle.
64–67	Paul (traditional)	Second Epistle to Timothy	Epistle	New Testament	Rome	Complete	Sinaiticus	NA28	Traditionally regarded as Paul's final letter.
65–70	John Mark (traditional)	Gospel according to Mark	Gospel	New Testament	Rome (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Earliest canonical Gospel according to the majority of scholars.
70–90	Anonymous	Didache	Church Order	Apostolic Fathers	Syria (probably)	Complete	Codex Hierosolymitanus (1056)	Holmes; Ehrman	Earliest surviving Christian church manual.
70–90	Anonymous	Gospel according to Matthew	Gospel	New Testament	Antioch? (traditional scholarly proposal)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Probably dependent upon Mark and other traditions.
80–90	Anonymous	Epistle to the Hebrews	Homily / Epistle	New Testament	Unknown	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Anonymous in the earliest manuscripts.
80–90	Anonymous	Gospel according to Luke	Gospel	New Testament	Greece or Asia Minor (disputed)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	First volume of Luke–Acts.
80–90	Anonymous	Acts of the Apostles	History	New Testament	Greece or Asia Minor	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Second volume of Luke–Acts.
80–95	Anonymous	Epistle of James	Epistle	New Testament	Palestine? (disputed)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Traditionally attributed to James the brother of Jesus.
80–95	Anonymous	First Epistle of Peter	Epistle	New Testament	Rome ("Babylon")	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Petrine authorship debated.
80–100	Clement of Rome	First Epistle of Clement	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Rome	Complete	Codex Alexandrinus; Codex Hierosolymitanus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Earliest surviving post-apostolic Christian letter.
85–95	Anonymous	Gospel according to John	Gospel	New Testament	Ephesus (traditional)	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Distinctive theological portrait of Jesus.
90–95	Anonymous	First Epistle of John	Epistle	New Testament	Asia Minor	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Closely related to the Fourth Gospel.
90–95	Anonymous	Second Epistle of John	Epistle	New Testament	Asia Minor	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Shortest New Testament epistle by verse count.
90–95	Anonymous	Third Epistle of John	Epistle	New Testament	Asia Minor	Complete	Sinaiticus, Vaticanus	NA28	Personal letter concerning church leadership.
90–96	John of Patmos	Revelation	Apocalypse	New Testament	Patmos	Complete	Sinaiticus; Alexandrinus	NA28	Earliest surviving Christian apocalypse in the canon.
90–100	Anonymous	Odes of Solomon	Hymns	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Syria	Complete	Syriac manuscripts; Papyrus Bodmer XI (fragments)	Charlesworth; Lattke	Earliest substantial Christian hymn collection.
95–120	Anonymous	Ascension of Isaiah (Christian recension)	Apocalypse	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Syria or Palestine	Complete	Ethiopic manuscripts; Latin & Slavonic fragments	Charlesworth; Knibb	Composite work containing an early Christian vision of Christ's descent and ascent.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Ephesians	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Smyrna	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus; later manuscripts	Holmes; Lightfoot	One of the seven authentic letters written while en route to martyrdom.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Magnesians	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Smyrna	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Emphasizes unity under the bishop.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Trallians	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Smyrna	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Warns against false teaching.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Romans	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Smyrna	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Famous for Ignatius's desire for martyrdom.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Philadelphians	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Troas	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Encourages ecclesiastical unity.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to the Smyrnaeans	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Troas	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Strong affirmation of Christ's true humanity.
100–110	Ignatius of Antioch	Epistle to Polycarp	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Troas	Complete	Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Personal letter to Polycarp of Smyrna.
100–120	Polycarp of Smyrna	Epistle to the Philippians	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Smyrna	Complete	Codex Vaticanus Graecus 859; later manuscripts	Holmes; Lightfoot	Frequently quotes New Testament writings.
100–130	Papias of Hierapolis	Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord	Commentary	Apostolic Fathers	Hierapolis	Fragmentary	Preserved principally in Eusebius	Holmes (fragments); Ehrman	Earliest extant discussion of the origins of Matthew and Mark.
100–130	Anonymous	Shepherd of Hermas	Apocalypse / Parable	Apostolic Fathers	Rome	Complete	Codex Sinaiticus; Codex Athous	Holmes; Ehrman	Highly regarded by many second-century Christians.
100–130	Anonymous	Gospel of the Hebrews	Gospel	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt or Syria	Fragmentary	Quotations in Jerome and others	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Used by some Jewish-Christian communities.
100–130	Anonymous	Gospel of the Nazarenes	Gospel	Christian Apocrypha	Syria	Fragmentary	Quotations in Jerome	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Closely related to Matthew.
100–130	Anonymous	Gospel of the Ebionites	Gospel Harmony	Christian Apocrypha	Transjordan or Syria	Fragmentary	Quotations in Epiphanius	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Omits the infancy narratives.
110–135	Anonymous	Apocalypse of Peter	Apocalypse	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Partial (Greek); Complete (Ethiopic recension)	Akhmim Codex; Ethiopic manuscripts	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Widely read in the second century and included in some early canon lists.
110–140	Anonymous	Preaching of Peter (Kerygma Petrou)	Apologetic Treatise	Christian Apocrypha	Alexandria (possibly)	Fragmentary	Clement of Alexandria and others	Schneemelcher	Survives only in quotations.
120–135	Anonymous	Epistle of Barnabas	Epistle	Apostolic Fathers	Alexandria	Complete	Codex Sinaiticus	Holmes; Lightfoot	Presents an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament.
125–140	Quadratus of Athens	Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Athens	Fragmentary	Preserved in Eusebius	Ehrman	Earliest known Christian apology.
125–145	Aristides of Athens	Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Athens	Complete	Syriac manuscript; Armenian version	ANF; Ehrman	Addressed to Emperor Hadrian or Antoninus Pius.
130–150	Hegesippus	Memoirs (Hypomnemata)	Church History	Patristic	Probably Rome	Fragmentary	Preserved in Eusebius	ANF (fragments)	One of the earliest Christian historical works.
135–150	Anonymous	Protoevangelium of James	Infancy Gospel	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt or Syria	Complete	Bodmer Papyrus V; numerous later manuscripts	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Principal source for later traditions concerning Mary's childhood.
c. 140	Marcion	Antitheses	Theological Treatise	Heterodox	Rome	Lost	Reconstructed from patristic quotations	Harnack	Contrasted the God of the Old Testament with the Father of Jesus.
c. 140	Marcion	Evangelion (Marcion's Gospel)	Gospel	Heterodox	Rome	Reconstructed	Patristic quotations	Harnack; Roth	Edited form of the Gospel of Luke according to the majority view.
140–170	Anonymous	Gospel of Mary	Dialogue Gospel	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Partial	Berlin Codex; Rylands Papyrus 463	Meyer; Elliott	Centers on post-resurrection revelations to Mary Magdalene.
140–180	Anonymous	Gospel of Thomas	Sayings Gospel	Christian Apocrypha	Syria	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex II; Oxyrhynchus papyri	Meyer; Patterson & Robinson	Collection of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus.
140–180	Valentinian school	Gospel of Truth	Homily / Gospel	Gnostic Literature	Rome or Alexandria	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex I	Meyer; Robinson	Often attributed to Valentinus or one of his followers.
140–180	Valentinian school	Gospel of Philip	Sacramental Treatise	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex II	Meyer; Robinson	Collection of mystical sayings concerning sacraments and union with Christ.
145–160	Justin Martyr	First Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Falls	Defense of Christianity addressed to Antoninus Pius.
c. 150	Justin Martyr	Second Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Falls	Supplement to the First Apology.
150–160	Justin Martyr	Dialogue with Trypho	Dialogue	Apologetic	Ephesus or Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Falls	Lengthy defense of Christianity against Jewish objections.
145–170	Anonymous	Acts of John	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Partial	Numerous Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Earliest of the major apocryphal Acts.
150–160	Tatian	Address to the Greeks	Apology	Apologetic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Critique of Greek philosophy and culture.
160–172	Tatian	Diatessaron	Gospel Harmony	Gospel Harmony	Syria	Lost (reconstructed)	Ephrem's Commentary; Arabic and Latin witnesses	Petersen; Hill	Earliest known harmony of the four canonical Gospels.
c. 165	Melito of Sardis	On Pascha	Homily	Patristic	Sardis	Complete	Papyrus Chester Beatty-Michigan	Hall; ANF (partial)	Earliest surviving Christian Paschal homily.
165–180	Melito of Sardis	Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Sardis	Fragmentary	Eusebius	Hall	Addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
165–180	Melito of Sardis	Extracts (Eklogai)	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Sardis	Fragmentary	Catenae and patristic citations	Hall	Collection of scriptural interpretations.
165–177	Athenagoras of Athens	Plea for the Christians	Apology	Apologetic	Athens (probably)	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Defense of Christians addressed to Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
c. 177	Athenagoras of Athens	On the Resurrection of the Dead	Treatise	Patristic	Athens	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest full-length defense of bodily resurrection.
169–183	Theophilus of Antioch	To Autolycus	Apology	Apologetic	Antioch	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	First known Christian author to use the word "Trinity" (Trias).
c. 170	Anonymous	Muratorian Fragment	Canon List	Canonical Literature	Rome	Fragmentary	Codex Ambrosianus	Metzger	Earliest surviving list of New Testament books.
170–180	Anonymous	Letter of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Gaul	Complete	Preserved in Eusebius	Musurillo	Documents the persecution under Marcus Aurelius.
c. 177	Anonymous	Martyrdom of Pionius	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Smyrna	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	Musurillo	Traditional date disputed by some scholars.
175–185	Anonymous	Acts of Paul	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Partial	Coptic, Greek, and Latin witnesses	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Includes the Acts of Paul and Thecla.
175–190	Anonymous	Acts of Paul and Thecla	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Complete	Numerous Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher	Most popular section of the Acts of Paul.
175–190	Anonymous	Third Epistle to the Corinthians	Epistle	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Complete	Armenian and Latin traditions	Schneemelcher	Incorporated into the Acts of Paul.
175–190	Anonymous	Martyrdom of Paul	Martyr Account	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher	Final section of the Acts of Paul.
175–190	Anonymous	Acts of Peter	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Rome	Partial	Vercelli Acts; Greek fragments	Schneemelcher	Contains the Quo Vadis episode.
220–230	Anonymous	Acts of Andrew	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Fragmentary	Greek fragments; later recensions	Schneemelcher; Elliott	One of the major apocryphal apostolic Acts.
c. 178	Celsus	The True Doctrine	Polemic	Pagan Critique	Alexandria (probably)	Lost (quoted extensively)	Preserved by Origen	Chadwick	Most influential pagan critique of Christianity before Porphyry.
180	Irenaeus of Lyons	Against Heresies	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Proto-orthodox	Complete	Latin manuscripts; Armenian fragments	ANF; Rousseau & Doutreleau	Principal refutation of second-century Gnosticism.
c. 180	Irenaeus of Lyons	Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching	Catechetical Treatise	Patristic	Lyons	Complete	Armenian manuscript	Behr	Summary of Christian doctrine.
180–190	Rhodo	Against Marcion	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Rome	Fragmentary	Eusebius	ANF (fragments)	Disciple of Tatian.
c. 190	Clement of Alexandria	Exhortation to the Greeks (Protrepticus)	Apologetic Treatise	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Invitation for pagans to embrace Christianity.
c. 190	Clement of Alexandria	The Instructor (Paedagogus)	Moral Treatise	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Christian ethics and daily conduct.
190–202	Clement of Alexandria	Miscellanies (Stromata)	Theological Miscellany	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	One of the most learned Christian works of the second century.
c. 190	Clement of Alexandria	Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?	Homily	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Commentary on Mark 10:17–31.
c. 197	Tertullian	Apology	Apology	Apologetic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Greatest Latin apology of the early Church.
c. 197	Tertullian	To the Nations	Apology	Apologetic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earlier companion to the Apology.
c. 197	Tertullian	On the Testimony of the Soul	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Appeals to natural knowledge of God.
197–208	Tertullian	Against Marcion	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Five-book refutation of Marcionism.
c. 198	Tertullian	On Baptism	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest surviving treatise devoted entirely to baptism.
c. 198	Tertullian	On Prayer	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest substantial Christian commentary on the Lord's Prayer.
c. 199	Tertullian	On Repentance	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Important witness to early penitential practice.
c. 200	Anonymous	Acts of Thomas	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Edessa	Complete	Syriac and Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher; Elliott	Famous for the "Hymn of the Pearl."
c. 200	Anonymous	Hymn of the Pearl	Hymn	Christian Poetry	Edessa	Complete	Embedded in the Acts of Thomas	Schneemelcher	One of the masterpieces of early Syriac Christian literature.
c. 200	Anonymous	Gospel of Judas	Dialogue Gospel	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Codex Tchacos	Meyer; Kasser	Presents Judas as the recipient of secret revelation.
c. 200	Anonymous	Apocryphon of John	Revelation Dialogue	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codices II, III, IV; Berlin Codex	Robinson; Meyer	Foundational Gnostic text.
c. 200	Anonymous	Hypostasis of the Archons	Treatise	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex II	Robinson	Interpretation of Genesis from a perspective.
c. 200	Anonymous	The Thought of Norea	Revelation	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex IX	Robinson	Short revelation centered on Norea.
c. 200	Anonymous	Thunder, Perfect Mind	Poetic Revelation	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex VI	Robinson	Famous poetic monologue spoken by a divine female figure.
c. 200	Anonymous	Trimorphic Protennoia	Revelation	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex XIII	Robinson	Closely related to the Apocryphon of John.
c. 200	Anonymous	Sophia of Jesus Christ	Dialogue	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex III; Berlin Codex	Robinson	Dialogue between the risen Christ and his disciples.
c. 200	Anonymous	Tripartite Tractate	Theological Treatise	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex I	Robinson	One of the longest Valentinian theological works.
c. 200	Anonymous	Interpretation of Knowledge	Treatise	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex XI	Robinson	Reflects mature Valentinian ecclesiology.
c. 200	Anonymous	Letter of Peter to Philip	Epistle	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex VIII	Robinson	Expanded apostolic revelation dialogue.
c. 200	Anonymous	Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles	Acts	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex VI	Robinson	Symbolic missionary narrative.
200–203	Clement of Alexandria	Excerpts from Theodotus	Commentary	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Commentary preserving Valentinian traditions.
200–203	Clement of Alexandria	Eclogae Propheticae	Commentary	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Notes on biblical interpretation.
200–203	Clement of Alexandria	Quis Dives Salvetur?	Homily	Patristic	Alexandria	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Interpretation of the Rich Young Ruler.
c. 200	Minucius Felix	Octavius	Dialogue	Apologetic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest surviving Christian dialogue in Latin.
200–206	Tertullian	On the Prescription of Heretics	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Argues apostolic succession determines authentic doctrine.
c. 202	Tertullian	Against Praxeas	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest extensive Latin defense of Trinitarian theology.
c. 203	Anonymous	Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Carthage	Complete	Numerous Latin manuscripts	Musurillo	Includes Perpetua's own prison diary.
c. 203	Tertullian	To the Martyrs	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Encouragement for imprisoned confessors.
c. 203	Tertullian	On the Crown	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Discusses military service and Christian conscience.
c. 205	Hippolytus of Rome	Commentary on Daniel	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Rome	Complete	Greek and Slavonic witnesses	ANF	Earliest surviving complete Christian biblical commentary.
c. 205	Hippolytus of Rome	On Christ and Antichrist	Treatise	Patristic	Rome	Complete	Greek manuscripts	ANF	Major early work of Christian eschatology.
205–215	Hippolytus of Rome	Apostolic Tradition	Church Order	Church Order	Rome	Reconstructed	Ethiopic, Latin, Arabic, Sahidic witnesses	Stewart; Bradshaw	Influential source for early liturgy and ordination rites.
210–220	Hippolytus of Rome	Refutation of All Heresies	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Rome	Complete	Mount Athos manuscript	ANF	Valuable source for many otherwise-lost heresies.
c. 212	Tertullian	On the Resurrection of the Flesh	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Defense of bodily resurrection.
c. 213	Tertullian	On the Soul	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Early Christian anthropology.
c. 215	Origen	Exhortation to Martyrdom	Treatise	Patristic	Caesarea	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Greer	Written during persecution.
c. 215	Origen	On Prayer	Treatise	Patristic	Caesarea	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	Greer	One of the finest early Christian works on prayer.
c. 220	Origen	On First Principles (De Principiis)	Systematic Theology	Patristic	Alexandria	Partial	Latin translation of Rufinus	Butterworth	First systematic theology in Christian history.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Commentary on John	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Alexandria	Fragmentary	Greek fragments; Latin translation by Rufinus	ANF; Heine	One of the earliest extensive Christian commentaries on the Fourth Gospel.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Commentary on Matthew	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Alexandria	Fragmentary	Greek fragments	ANF; Scheck	Important witness to early Gospel interpretation.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Commentary on Romans	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Alexandria	Partial	Rufinus translation	ANF	Earliest surviving major commentary on Romans.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Commentary on Genesis	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Alexandria	Fragmentary	Patristic quotations	Heine	Demonstrates Origen's allegorical interpretation.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Homilies on Genesis	Homily	Patristic	Alexandria	Partial	Rufinus translation	ANF	Early example of Christian preaching on Scripture.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Homilies on Exodus	Homily	Patristic	Alexandria	Partial	Rufinus translation	ANF	Develops typological readings of Exodus.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Homilies on Leviticus	Homily	Patristic	Alexandria	Partial	Rufinus translation	ANF	Influential on later sacramental theology.
220–230	Origen of Alexandria	Hexapla	Biblical Textual Criticism	Biblical Scholarship	Caesarea	Fragmentary	Fragments preserved in later writers	Field; Nautin	Monumental six-column edition of the Old Testament.
c. 220	Julius Africanus	Chronographiai	Chronology / History	Patristic	Palestine	Fragmentary	Preserved in Eusebius and later writers	Wallraff	One of the earliest Christian chronological histories.
c. 220	Julius Africanus	Letter to Aristides	Letter / Gospel Harmonization	Patristic	Palestine	Fragmentary	Preserved in Eusebius	ANF	Discusses apparent differences between Matthew and Luke.
220–230	Anonymous	Acts of Andrew	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Fragmentary	Greek fragments; later recensions	Schneemelcher; Elliott	One of the major apocryphal apostolic Acts.
220–240	Anonymous	Acts of Peter and Andrew	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt or Asia Minor	Fragmentary	Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher	Part of the broader Acts tradition.
c. 230	Anonymous	Gospel of Bartholomew	Gospel / Revelation Dialogue	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Fragmentary	Greek and Coptic manuscripts	Elliott	Contains dialogues between Christ and Bartholomew.
c. 230	Anonymous	Questions of Bartholomew	Revelation Dialogue	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Fragmentary	Greek and Coptic manuscripts	Elliott	Explores post-resurrection revelations.
c. 230	Anonymous	Apocalypse of Adam	Apocalypse	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex V	Robinson	reinterpretation of salvation history.
c. 230	Anonymous	Zostrianos	Revelation	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex VIII	Robinson	Long cosmological revelation.
c. 230	Anonymous	Allogenes	Revelation Dialogue	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex XI	Robinson	Describes ascent through heavenly realms.
c. 230	Anonymous	Marsanes	Revelation Treatise	Gnostic Literature	Egypt	Complete	Nag Hammadi Codex X	Robinson	Mystical cosmological work.
235–240	Novatian of Rome	On the Trinity	Theological Treatise	Patristic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest surviving Latin treatise devoted to the Trinity.
235–250	Novatian of Rome	On Jewish Foods	Treatise	Biblical Interpretation	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Allegorical interpretation of Jewish dietary laws.
235–250	Novatian of Rome	Letters	Letters	Patristic	Rome	Fragmentary	Cyprian and later writers	ANF	Important evidence for Roman church disputes.
240–250	Cyprian of Carthage	To Donatus	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Cyprian's conversion narrative.
246	Cyprian of Carthage	The Dress of Virgins	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Discusses Christian ascetic ideals.
248	Cyprian of Carthage	The Unity of the Church	Ecclesiology Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Major early statement on episcopal unity.
249	Cyprian of Carthage	On the Lapsed	Pastoral Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Addresses Christians who sacrificed during persecution.
249	Cyprian of Carthage	On the Lord's Prayer	Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Early Latin commentary on the Lord's Prayer.
c. 250	Anonymous	Didascalia Apostolorum	Church Order	Church Order	Syria	Complete	Syriac manuscripts	Connolly; Funk	Important source for third-century church practice.
c. 250	Anonymous	Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	North Africa	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Musurillo	Earliest surviving Latin martyr act.
c. 250	Anonymous	Martyrdom of Pionius	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Smyrna	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Musurillo	Describes persecution under Decius or earlier.
c. 250	Anonymous	Testament of Jesus Christ	Church Order / Revelation	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Egypt	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Tübingen editions	Presents apostolic instructions attributed to Jesus.
c. 250	Anonymous	Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Spain (traditional)	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Elliott	Late apocryphal Acts tradition.
c. 250	Anonymous	Acts of Philip	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Fragmentary	Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher	Contains extensive miracle narratives.
250–251	Cyprian of Carthage	Letters	Letters	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Diercks	One of the most important collections of third-century Christian correspondence.
250–251	Cyprian of Carthage	To Demetrian	Apologetic Treatise	Apologetic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Responds to pagan accusations that Christians caused disasters.
251	Cyprian of Carthage	On the Mortality	Pastoral Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Reflection on Christian responses to plague and death.
251	Cyprian of Carthage	On Works and Almsgiving	Moral Treatise	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Discusses charity and repentance.
251–258	Cyprian of Carthage	Letters concerning the Novatian Schism	Ecclesiastical Letters	Patristic	Carthage	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF; Diercks	Major evidence for early debates over church unity and restoration of the lapsed.
c. 251	Novatian	On the Jewish Foods	Biblical Treatise	Patristic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Allegorical interpretation of Mosaic food laws.
c. 251	Novatian	On the Trinity	Theological Treatise	Patristic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	One of the earliest Latin works defending Trinitarian theology.
c. 251	Novatian	On the Spectacles	Moral Treatise	Patristic	Rome	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Argues Christians should avoid pagan entertainment.
251–260	Dionysius of Alexandria	Letters	Letters	Patristic	Alexandria	Fragmentary	Eusebius and later writers	ANF	Important witness to third-century theological controversies.
c. 252	Anonymous	Acts of Cyprian	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Carthage	Complete	Latin manuscripts	Musurillo	Earliest surviving account of an African bishop's martyrdom.
252–260	Dionysius of Alexandria	Against Nepos	Anti-millennialist Treatise	Anti-heretical	Alexandria	Fragmentary	Eusebius	ANF fragments	Refutes excessive literal millennial interpretations.
c. 255	Anonymous	Acts of Marianus and James	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	North Africa	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Musurillo	Important witness to persecution under Valerian.
c. 255	Anonymous	Passion of Montanus, Lucius, and Others	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	North Africa	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Musurillo	Describes Montanist-associated martyrs.
c. 255	Anonymous	Acts of Euplus	Martyr Account	Martyr Literature	Sicily	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Musurillo	Valerian persecution martyrdom account.
260–270	Gregory Thaumaturgus	Address of Thanks to Origen	Oration	Patristic	Palestine	Complete	Greek manuscripts	ANF	Important account of Origen's teaching.
c. 260	Gregory Thaumaturgus	Canonical Letter	Ecclesiastical Letter	Patristic	Neocaesarea	Complete	Greek manuscripts	ANF	Early evidence of church disciplinary practice.
260–280	Anonymous	Acts of Peter and Paul	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor or Egypt	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Elliott	Combines traditions concerning Peter and Paul.
c. 270	Victorinus of Pettau	Commentary on Revelation	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Pannonia	Complete	Medieval manuscripts	ANF	Earliest surviving Latin commentary on Revelation.
c. 270	Victorinus of Pettau	Commentary on Genesis	Biblical Commentary	Biblical Commentary	Pannonia	Fragmentary	Patristic quotations	ANF	Early Latin biblical interpretation.
c. 270	Victorinus of Pettau	Against the Heresies	Anti-heretical Treatise	Anti-heretical	Pannonia	Lost	Fragments only	ANF	One of the earliest Latin anti-heretical works.
c. 270–280	Methodius of Olympus	Symposium	Dialogue	Patristic	Lycia	Complete	Greek manuscripts	ANF	Christian adaptation of Plato's Symposium focusing on virginity.
c. 270–280	Methodius of Olympus	On Free Will	Theological Treatise	Patristic	Lycia	Fragmentary	Patristic quotations	ANF	Response to determinism.
c. 270–280	Methodius of Olympus	On the Resurrection	Theological Treatise	Patristic	Lycia	Fragmentary	Patristic quotations	ANF	Defense of bodily resurrection.
c. 280	Anonymous	Apostolic Church Order	Church Order	Church Order	Egypt or Syria	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Funk	Early compilation of apostolic regulations.
c. 280	Anonymous	Pseudo-Clementine Homilies	Religious Romance / Dialogue	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Syria	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Rehm; Jones	Presents Peter as defender of true Christianity against Simon Magus.
c. 280	Anonymous	Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions	Religious Romance / Dialogue	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Syria	Complete	Rufinus Latin translation	Rehm; Jones	Related to the Homilies but preserves different traditions.
c. 280–300	Anonymous	Apocalypse of Paul	Apocalypse	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Complete	Numerous medieval manuscripts	Elliott	Influential vision of heaven and hell.
c. 280–300	Anonymous	Apocalypse of Thomas	Apocalypse	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Complete	Latin manuscripts	Elliott	Eschatological revelations attributed to Thomas.
c. 290	Anonymous	Acts of Philip (later sections)	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Asia Minor	Fragmentary	Greek manuscripts	Schneemelcher	Includes extensive miracle traditions.
c. 290	Anonymous	Acts of Andrew and Matthias	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Fragmentary	Greek manuscripts	Elliott	Late apostolic Acts tradition.
290–300	Anonymous	Life of Adam and Eve (Christian expansion)	Adamic Literature	Christian Pseudepigrapha	Mediterranean	Complete	Numerous manuscripts	Johnson	Christian adaptation of Jewish Adam traditions.
c. 300	Anonymous	Acts of the Apostles Peter and Paul (expanded form)	Acts	Christian Apocrypha	Egypt	Complete	Greek manuscripts	Elliott	Expands traditions surrounding apostolic martyrdom.

Why 1820?

One of the most natural questions a person can ask about the Restoration is why it took so long. If the priesthood authority and many "plain and precious" truths were lost following the deaths of the Apostles, why would God wait nearly eighteen centuries before restoring them? Why not restore the gospel in the fourth century, the eighth century, or during the Protestant Reformation? Latter-day Saint doctrine does not provide a complete answer to those questions. The Lord has never revealed every reason for His timing. Nevertheless, scripture, history, and the teachings of modern prophets together suggest a compelling cumulative explanation. While they may not demonstrate that the Restoration had to occur in 1820, they help us understand why that moment in history was uniquely fitting.

The Restoration was not simply a correction of a few theological errors. It inaugurated what Latter-day Saints call the "dispensation of the fulness of times" (Ephesians 1:10; Doctrine and Covenants 128:18), the final dispensation before the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. God was not merely restoring doctrines. He was restoring priesthood authority, bringing forth new scripture, revealing temple ordinances, gathering Israel on both sides of the veil, and establishing a Church intended to endure until Christ's return. Such a work required more than a willing prophet. It required a world that had been prepared to receive, preserve, and spread the Restoration. Throughout scripture, God often accomplishes His purposes by patiently preparing both people and circumstances over generations rather than by overriding history altogether. The Restoration appears to follow that same pattern.

History itself points toward the nineteenth century as an unusually favorable moment. For much of Christian history, governments treated religious dissent as both a theological and civil offense. New religious movements were often suppressed before they could take root. By Joseph Smith's day, however, the United States offered something unprecedented: constitutional protections for religious liberty, a population with high literacy rates, inexpensive printing, and a culture that encouraged religious inquiry. The Book of Mormon could be printed and distributed on a scale that would have been impossible centuries earlier. Missionaries could travel with increasing ease, and advances in communication and transportation would soon allow the restored gospel to spread throughout the world. The political, technological, and social conditions necessary for a permanent restoration had begun to converge.

Those developments did not emerge in isolation. From a Latter-day Saint perspective, centuries of Christian reform also helped prepare the way. Men and women such as John Wycliffe, William Tyndale, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Wesley challenged religious corruption, translated the scriptures into the language of ordinary people, emphasized personal engagement with the Bible, and encouraged believers to seek a purer form of Christianity. Although Latter-day Saints believe these reformers did not restore priesthood authority or the fulness of the gospel, they nevertheless helped create a world increasingly receptive to the idea that God might yet do more. In that sense, the Reformation was not the Restoration itself, but an important step toward it.

The Book of Mormon adds another dimension to this picture. In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi foresaw that many "plain and precious" truths would be removed from the gospel as it passed through history. Whether through deliberate corruption, sincere misunderstanding, or simply the accumulation of centuries of tradition, religious institutions naturally develop a powerful inertia. Once a particular way of reading scripture becomes deeply established, even faithful believers often find it difficult to imagine that foundational assumptions could be mistaken. The Restoration therefore required more than correcting isolated doctrines. It required someone willing to ask whether prevailing religious narratives themselves were incomplete. Joseph Smith's First Vision began with precisely that kind of question. Rather than asking which denomination was the best expression of Christianity, he sought to know which church God Himself recognized. His willingness to seek revelation rather than rely solely upon inherited tradition distinguished him from many of his contemporaries.

Latter-day Saints also believe that Joseph Smith was prepared for this work long before his birth. Scripture teaches that certain individuals were foreordained in the premortal life for sacred missions (Abraham 3:22–23), and Lehi identified Joseph Smith as the "choice seer" prophesied centuries earlier by Joseph of Egypt (2 Nephi 3). Although the reasons for Joseph's foreordination have not been fully revealed, it is reasonable within Latter-day Saint theology to conclude that he had demonstrated exceptional faithfulness before mortality and had been divinely prepared for this calling. His mortal life likewise displayed qualities the Restoration demanded: humility before God, openness to continuing revelation, remarkable resilience under persecution, and an extraordinary capacity to receive, organize, and teach new revelation. If God had spent centuries preparing the world for the Restoration, it is fitting that He would also prepare the prophet through whom that Restoration would come.

Taken together, these considerations form a persuasive cumulative case. God prepared nations through political and legal developments that protected religious liberty. He prepared societies through centuries of reform that rekindled a desire for scriptural truth. He prepared the world through advances in literacy, printing, communication, and transportation that would enable the restored gospel to endure and spread. He prepared a prophet who was foreordained, spiritually receptive, and willing to ask questions that others would not. Each consideration, standing alone, explains only part of the picture. Together, however, they paint a coherent portrait of divine providence unfolding over many centuries.

Even so, it is important not to claim more than the evidence allows. This cumulative case does not prove that 1820 was the only possible time for the Restoration or that Joseph Smith was the only person whom God could have called. Latter-day Saint scripture does not reveal every reason for God's choices, and finite beings should be cautious about claiming insight into every aspect of divine providence. The purpose of these arguments is not to demonstrate necessity but to show fittingness. They explain why the timing of the Restoration makes sense within the broader sweep of sacred history.

Ultimately, Christians already accept this kind of reasoning in many other contexts. Scripture says that Christ came "in the fulness of time" (Galatians 4:4), yet it does not explain why the Incarnation occurred in the first century rather than earlier or later. God waited centuries before delivering Israel from Egypt, generations before sending the Flood, and days before raising Lazarus. In each case, believers can identify reasons that illuminate God's timing without claiming to exhaust His purposes. The Restoration invites the same posture. Latter-day Saints can reasonably conclude that God inaugurated the Restoration when the world had been sufficiently prepared and through the prophet He had long prepared for that work. Beyond that, faith does not require complete knowledge of every divine reason. It requires confidence that the God who patiently guided history toward the Restoration knew precisely when its fulness of times had arrived.

How Would We Know Whether the Church is in Apostasy Today?

Notes (click to expand)

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